Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

How to Use Game Elements to Enhance Learning: Applications of the Theory of Gamified Learning

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Serious Games and Edutainment Applications

Abstract

The theory of gamified learning (Landers RN, Simul Games 45(6):752–768. doi:10.1177/1046878114563660, 2014) presents a theoretical model in which game elements, drawn from the serious games literature, are used in isolation or in limited combination to gamify existing instructional processes in order to improve learning. Critically, individual game elements must be linked to specific behavioral, motivational, or attitudinal outcomes, which in turn must be linked to learning outcomes, in order for gamification to be effective. Without establishing such links, gamification may appear to be unsuccessful when implementations have in fact succeeded. In this chapter, we expand upon the theory of gamified learning by providing applied examples of each of the nine major categories of game elements and linking those elements theoretically to the behavioral and attitudinal constructs they are best predicted to affect. In short, we explain how to gamify learning in a scientifically supported fashion. We conclude with recommendations for both research and practice of gamification in learning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, D.M., Mayer, R.E., MacNamara, A., Koenig, A., Wainess, R.: Narrative games for learning: testing the discovery and narrative hypotheses. J. Educ. Psychol. 104(1), 235–249 (2012). doi:10.1037/10025595

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aggarwal, R., Morthy, K., Darzi, A.: Laparoscopic skills training and assessment. Br. J. Surg. 91, 1549–1558 (2004). doi:10.1002/bjs.4816

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ambrose, M.L., Kulik, C.T.: Old friends, new faces: motivation research in the 1990s. J. Manage. 25(3), 231–292 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  • Antin, J., Churchill, E.: Badges in social media: a social psychological perspective. In: Proceedings of CHI 2011 workshop gamification: using game design elements in non-game contexts. ACM (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R.M., Kenny, D.A.: The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 51, 1173–1182 (1986)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bedwell, W.L., Pavlas, D., Heyne, K., Lazzara, E.H., Salas, E.: Toward a taxonomy linking game attributes to learning. An empirical study. Simul. Games. 43(6), 729–760 (2012). doi:10.1177/1046878112439444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Best, R.M., Floyd, R.G., McNamara, D.S.: Differential competencies contributing to children’s comprehension of narrative and expository texts. Read. Psychol. 29, 137–164 (2008). doi:10.1080/02702710801963951

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K.G.: Using computers to deliver training: which employees learn and why? Pers. Psychol. 54, 571–296 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K.G., Ford, J.K.: Using computer technology in training: building an infrastructure for active learning. Creat. Implement. Manag. Eff. Train. Dev. 192–233 (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • Colquitt, J.A., LePine, J.A., Noe, R.A.: Toward an integrative theory of training motivation: a meta-analytic path analysis of 20 years of research. J. Appl. Psychol. 85, 678–707 (2000). doi:10.1037//0021-9010.g5.5.678

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cordova, D.I., Lepper, M.R.: Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. J. Educ. Psychol. 88(4), 715–730 (1996)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, L.J., Gall, M.D.: The effects of expository and narrative prose on student achievement and attitudes toward textbooks. J. Exp. Educ. 58(3), 165–175 (1990)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeRouin, R.E., Fritzsche, B.A., Salas, E.: E-learning in organizations. J. Manag. 31(6), 920–940 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M.: The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 11, 227–268 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G., Ryan, R.M.: Motivation and education: the self-determination perspective. Educ. Psychol. 26(3 & 4), 325–346 (1991)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doran, G.T.: There’s a SMART way to write management’s goals and objectives. Manag. Rev. 70(11), 35–36 (1981)

    Google Scholar 

  • Durlak, J.A., Weissberg, R.P., Dymnicki, A.B., Taylor, R.D., Schellinger, K.B.: The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: a meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Dev. 82, 405–432 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldon, D.F.: Cognitive load and classroom teaching: the double-edged sword of automaticity. Educ. Psychol. 42(3), 123–137 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friend, C.L., Cole, C.L.: Learner control in computer-based instruction: a current literature review. Educ. Technol. 30, 47–49 (1990)

    Google Scholar 

  • Garris, R., Ahlers, R., Driskell, J.E.: Games, motivation, and learning: a research and practice model. Simul. Games. 33, 441–467 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerling, K. M., Klauser, M., Niesenhaus, J.: Measuring the impact of game controllers on player experience in FPS games. In: Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments, pp. 28–30, Tampere, Finland, ACM (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  • Graesser, A.C., Hauft-Smith, K., Cohen, A.D., Pyles, L.D.: Advanced outlines, familiarity, and text genre on retention of prose. J. Exp. Educ. 48(4), 281–290 (1980a)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graesser, A.C., Hoffman, N.L., Clark, L.F.: Structural components of reading time. J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 19, 135–151 (1980b)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karim, M.N., Behrend, T.S.: Reexamining the nature of learner control: dimensionality and effects on learning and training reactions. J. Bus. Psychol. 29, 87–99 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraiger, K.: Transforming our models of learning and development: web-based instruction as enabler of third-generation instruction. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 1, 454–467 (2008). doi:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2008.00086.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kraiger, K., Jerden, E.: A new look at learner control: meta-analytic results and directions for future research. In: Fiore, S.M., Salas, E. (eds.) Where Is the Learning in Distance Learning? Towards a Science of Distributed Learning and Training, pp. 65–90. APA Books, Washington, DC (2007)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kraiger, K., Ford, J.K., Salas, E.: Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. J. Appl. Psychol. 78, 311–328 (1993)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P.A., Jochems, W.: Identifying the pitfalls for social interaction in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: a review of the research. Comput. Hum. Behav. 19(3), 335–353 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landers, R.N.: Developing a theory of gamified learning: linking serious games and gamification of learning. Simul. Games. 45(6), 752–768 (2014). doi:10.1177/1046878114563660

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landers, R.N., Callan, R.C.: Casual social games as serious games: the psychology of the gamification of undergraduate education and employee training. In: Ma, M., Oikonomou, A., Jain, L.C. (eds.) Serious Games and Edutainment Applications, pp. 399–424. Springer, London (2011)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Landers, R.N., Armstrong, M.B.: Enhancing instructional outcomes with gamification: an empirical test of the technology-enhanced training effectiveness model. Comput. Hum. Behav. (in press). doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.07.031

  • Landers, R.N., Bauer, K.N., Callan, R.C., Armstrong, M.B.: Psychological theory and the gamification of learning. In: Reiners, T., Wood, L. (eds.) Gamification in Education and Business, pp. 165–186. Springer, Cham (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  • Landers, R.N., Landers, A.K.: An empirical test of the theory of gamified learning: the effect of leaderboards on time-on-task and academic performance. Simul. Games. 45, 769–785 (2014)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landers, R. N., Reddock, C.M.: Developing a framework of objective learner control. J. Bus. Psychol. (in press). doi:10.1007/s10869-016-9452-y

  • Latham, G.P., Brown, T.C.: The Effect of Learning vs. Outcome Goals on Self-Efficacy, Satisfaction and Performance in an MBA Program. Appl. Psychol. Int. Rev. 55(4), 606–623 (2006). doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00246.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, E.A.-L., Wong, K.W., Fung, C.C.: How does desktop virtual reality enhance learning outcomes? A structural equation modeling approach. Comput. Educ. 55, 1424–1442 (2010). doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2010.06.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E.A.: Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organ. Behav. Hum. Perform. 3(2), 157–189 (1968)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P.: Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: a 35-year odyssey. Am. Psychol. 57, 705–717 (2002). doi:10.1037//0003-066x.57.9.705

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P.: Goal setting theory, 1990. In: Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P. (eds.) New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance, pp. 3–15. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lofgren, K.: 2015 video game statistics & trends: who’s playing what and why? Retrieved from http://www.bigfishgames.com/blog/2015-global-video-game-stats-whos-playing-what-and-why/ (2015)

  • Malone, T.W.: Towards a theory of intrinsically motivation instruction. Cogn. Sci. 4, 333–369 (1981)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, R., Fanfarelli, J.: Building better digital badges: pairing completion logic with psychological factors. Simul. Games 47(1), 1–30 (2016). doi:10.1177/1046878115627138

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Opwis, K., Tuch A.N.: Do points, levels and leaderboards harm intrinsic motivation? an empirical analysis of common gamification elements. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Gameful Design, Research, and Applications, ACM, New York (2013). doi:10.1145/2583008.2583017

  • Montola, M., Nummenmaa, T., Lucero, A., Boberg, M., Korhonen, H.: Applying game achievement systems to enhance user experience in a photo sharing service. In: Proceedings of the 13th International MindTrek Conference: Everyday Life in the Ubiquitous Era, pp. 94–97. ACM (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakamura, J., Csikszentmihalyi, M.: The concept of flow. In: Snyder, C.R., Lopez, S.J. (eds.) Handbook of Positive Psychology, pp. 89–105. Oxford University Press, New York (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, S.: A RECIPE for meaningful gamification. In: Reiners, T., Wood, L.C. (eds.) Gamification in education and business, pp. 1–20. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, S.P., Guilbert, S.M., Smith, M.L., Hakimelahi, S., Phillips, L.M.: A theoretical framework for narrative explanation in science. Sci. Educ. 89(4), 535–563 (2005). doi:10.1002/sce.20063

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neill, J., Conzemius, A.: The Power of SMART Goals. Solution Tree Press, Bloomington (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettey, C., van der Meulen, R.: Gartner says by 2014, 80 percent of current gamified applications will fail to meet business objectives primarily due to poor design. Retrieved from http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2251015 (2012)

  • Powell, K.C., Kalina, C.J.: Cognitive and social constructivism: developing tools for an effective classroom. Education. 130, 241–250 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K.J., Hayes, A.F.: SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behav. Res. Methods. 36, 717–731 (2004)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roediger III, H.L., Karpicke, J.D.: Test-enhanced learning: taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychol. Sci. 17, 249–255 (2006). doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roediger III, H.L., Butler, A.C.: The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15(1), 20–27 (2011). doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003

  • Rowland, C.A.: The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: a meta-analytic review of the testing effect. Psychol. Bull. 140(6), 1432–1463 (2014). doi:10.1037/a0037559

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R.M., Deci, E.L.: Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am. Psychol. 55(1), 68–78 (2000). doi:10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salzman, M.C., Dede, C., Loftin, R.B., Chen, J.: A model for understanding how virtual reality aids complex conceptual learning. Prevention. 8(3), 293–316 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  • Seijts, G.H., Latham, G.P.: Learning versus performance goals: when should each be used? Acad. Manag. Perspect. 19, 124–131 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D., Campbell, D.T.: Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. Houghton Mifflin, Boston (2002)

    Google Scholar 

  • Shafer, D.M., Carbonara, C.P., Popova, L.: Controller required? The impact of natural mapping on interactivity, realism, presence, and enjoyment in motion-based video games. Prevention. 23(3), 267–286 (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  • Shernoff, D.J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Schneider, B., Shernoff, E.S.: Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. Sch. Psychol. Q. 18(2), 158–176 (2003)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorndyke, P.W.: Cognitive structures in comprehension and memory of narrative discourse. Cogn. Psychol. 9, 77–110 (1977)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tun, P.A.: Age differences in processing expository and narrative text. J. Gerontol. 44(1), 9–15 (1989)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Urdan, T., Schoenfelder, E.: Classroom effects on student motivation: goal structures, social relationships, and competence beliefs. J. Sch. Psychol. 44, 331–349 (2006)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M.S., Middlebrook, A., Sutton, C., Stone, R., McCloy, R.F.: MIST VR: a virtual reality trainer for laparoscopic surgery assesses performance. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. 79(6), 403–404 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K.A., Bedwell, W.L., Lazzara, E.H., Salas, E., Burke, C.S., Estock, J.L., Orvis, K.L., Conkey, C.: Relationships between game attributes and learning outcomes. Simul. Games. 40, 217–266 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winters, D., Latham, G.P.: The effect of learning versus outcome goals on a simple versus a complex task. Group. Org. Manag. 21(2), 236–250 (1996)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witmer, B.G., Singer, M.J.: Measuring presence in virtual environments: a presence questionnaire. Prevention. 7(3), 225–240 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Old Dominion University, 250 Mills Godwin Building, Norfolk, VA, 23529, USA

    Richard N. Landers, Michael B. Armstrong & Andrew B. Collmus

Authors
  1. Richard N. Landers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael B. Armstrong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andrew B. Collmus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Richard N. Landers .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, United Kingdom

    Minhua Ma

  2. College of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom

    Andreas Oikonomou

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Landers, R.N., Armstrong, M.B., Collmus, A.B. (2017). How to Use Game Elements to Enhance Learning: Applications of the Theory of Gamified Learning. In: Ma, M., Oikonomou, A. (eds) Serious Games and Edutainment Applications . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51645-5_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51645-5_21

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-51643-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-51645-5

  • eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation