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Reconsidering Peace and Patriotism during the First World War pp 91–114Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Between Front Lines: The Militant Pacifist Rosika Schwimmer (1877–1948) and Her Total Peace Effort

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Abstract

This chapter aims to contextualize the unorthodox mediation efforts of Rosika Schwimmer, a transnationally operating pacifist, feminist, and suffragist. Schwimmer’s progressive intertwining of feminism and pacifism during the First World War was not simply criticized by militarists and patriots, but also viewed sceptically by most of her feminist, suffragist, and pacifist peers. For her immediate surroundings, her feminist pacifism of endowing women with tasks beyond social approval (for instance, as diplomats) and of elevating pacifism from a mere observatory role, while a ‘war to end all wars’ was waged by the militarists, struck people as too avant-garde. For this chapter, early episodes in Schwimmer’s transatlantic peace advocacy are highlighted.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Short biographical assessments can be found by M. D. Dubin (1971) ‘Schwimmer, Rosika’ in E. T. James, J. Wilson James, and P. S. Boyer (eds.) Notable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary, 5 vols. (Cambridge), iii, pp. 246–249; E. Wynner (1973) ‘Schwimmer, Rosika’ in J. A. Garraty (ed.) Dictionary of American Biography: Supplement, 10 vols. (New York), iv, pp. 724–728; R. Rauther (1984) ‘Rosika Schwimmer: Stationen auf dem Lebensweg einer Pazifistin’, Feministische Studien, III(1), pp. 63–75; G. Hardy (1993) American Women Civil Rights Activists (Jefferson), pp. 338–341; S. Zimmermann and B. Major (2006) ‘Schwimmer, Róza’ in F. de Haan, K. Daskalova, and A. Loutfi (eds.) Biographical Dictionary of Women’s Movements and Feminisms: Central, Eastern, and South Eastern Europe, 19th and 20th Centuries (Budapest), pp. 484–489.

    Schwimmer’s pre-1914 life and work are discussed by S. Zimmermann (1999) Die bessere Hälfte? Frauenbewegungen und Frauenbestrebungen im Ungarn der Habsburgermonarchie 1848 bis 1918 (Budapest) and D. Wernitznig (2016a) ‘Illyrismus, Internationalismus, Interaktion, Interferenz: Rosika Schwimmer (1877–1948) und der südslawische Raum (ca. 1900 bis 1914)’ in I. Korotin and V. Tutavac (eds.) ‘Wir wollen der Gerechtigkeit und Menschenliebe dienen…’: Frauenbildung und Emanzipation in der Habsburgermonarchie––der südslawische Raum und seine Wechselwirkung mit Wien, Prag und Budapest (Vienna), pp. 334–356. See further Wernitznig (2016b) ‘Living Peace, Thinking Equality: Rosika Schwimmer’s (1877–1948) War on War’ in B. Bianchi and G. Ludbrook (eds.) Living War. Thinking Peace (1914–1921): Women’s Experiences, Feminist Thought and International Relations (Newcastle upon Tyne), pp. 123–238.

    Schwimmer’s activism during the Great War is partly covered by A. Wiltsher (1985) Most Dangerous Women: Feminist Peace Campaigners of the Great War (London), and her ambassadorial endeavours in Switzerland by P. Pastor (1974) ‘The Diplomatic Fiasco of the Modern World’s First Woman Ambassador: Róza Bédy-Schwimmer’, East European Quarterly, VIII(3), pp. 273–282; and T. Glant (1998) Through the Prism of the Habsburg Monarchy: Hungary in American Diplomacy and Public Opinion during World War I (Boulder), pp. 57–60; and (2002) ‘Against All Odds: Vira B. Whitehouse and Rosika Schwimmer in Switzerland, 1918‘, American Studies International, XL(1), pp. 34–51.

    For Schwimmer’s US exile and naturalization case, see R. B. Flowers and N. M. Lahutsky (1990) ‘The Naturalization of Rosika Schwimmer’, Journal of Church and State, XXXII(2), pp. 343–366; B. S. Wenger (1990) ‘Radical Politics in a Reactionary Age: The Unmaking of Rosika Schwimmer, 1914–1930’, Journal of Women’s History, II(2), pp. 66–99; R. B. Flowers (2003) To Defend the Constitution: Religion, Conscientious Objection, Naturalization, and the Supreme Court (Lanham), esp. ch. 3; M. H. McFadden (2011) ‘Borders, Boundaries, and the Necessity of Reflexivity: International Women Activists, Rosika Schwimmer (1877–1948), and the Shadow Narrative’, Women’s History Review, XX(4), pp. 533–542.

    See D. Wernitznig (2015) ‘‘It is a strange thing not to belong to any country, as is my case now’—Fascism, Refugees, Statelessness, and Rosika Schwimmer (1877–1948)’, DEP: Deportate, esuli, profughe, XXVII, pp. 102–108; (2016) ‘Memory Is Power: Rosa Manus, Rosika Schwimmer, and the Struggle about Establishing an International Women’s Archive’, in F. de Haan and M. Everard (eds.) Rosa Manus (1881–1942): The International Life and Legacy of a Jewish Dutch Feminist (Leiden), pp. 207–239; (2017) ‘Out of her time? Rosika Schwimmer’s (1877–1948) Transnational Activism after the First World War’, Women’s History Review, XXVI(2), pp. 262–279; (2017) ‘Suffrage and Nationalism in Comparative Perspective: Britain, Hungary, Finland and the transnational experience of Rosika Schwimmer’ (lead authors J. V. Gottlieb and J. Szapor, with T. Lintunen and D. Wernitznig), in I. Sharp and M. Stibbe (eds.) Women Activists between War and Peace: Europe, 1918–1923 (London), pp. 29–75, for Schwimmer’s post-1918 political activism and projects.

  2. 2.

    For details about the so-called International Congress of Women at The Hague, see J. Addams, E. Greene Balch, and A. Hamilton (1915) Women at The Hague: The International Congress of Women and Its Results (New York) and L. B. Costin (1982) ‘Feminism, Pacifism, Internationalism and the 1915 International Congress of Women’, Women’s Studies International Forum, V(3–4), pp. 301–315.

    Discernibly, The Hague was chosen for its tradition of peace conferences: in 1899, Tsar Nicolas II initiated the so-called First Hague Conference, and the Second followed in 1907. About the pre-1915 Hague conferences, see, for instance, J. Dülffer (1981) Regeln gegen den Krieg? Die Haager Friedenskonferenzen 1899 und 1907 in der internationalen Politik (Berlin). Interestingly, these peace congresses rather concerned themselves with jus in bello, less with jus ad bellum, hence evoking a certain futility regarding war prevention.

  3. 3.

    Denlinger, ‘If War Comes’, New York World-Telegram, 25 March 1935, Rosika Schwimmer Papers (henceforth RSP). Manuscripts and Archives Division. The New York Public Library. Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations, MF Reel 100:55.

  4. 4.

    Lloyd George (1938) War Memoirs of David Lloyd George, 2 vols. (London), i, p. 50.

  5. 5.

    United Suffragists to Schwimmer, 21 August 1914, RSP, Box 41.

  6. 6.

    Fell to Schwimmer, 18 August 1914, RSP, Box 41.

  7. 7.

    Fell to Schwimmer, 14 September 1914, RSP, Box 43.

  8. 8.

    ‘Our German Friends’, Daily Express, 31 August 1914, RSP, Box 42.

  9. 9.

    Schwimmer’s unpublished manuscript, ‘Woman’s Age of Innocence’, 1924, p. 106, RSP, Box 476.

  10. 10.

    Schwimmer, ‘Twenty-Five Years Peace Palace (August 28, 1913)’, n.d., p. 2, RSP, Box 502.

  11. 11.

    (1914) Bulletin Officiel du XXme Congrés Universel de la Paix, Tenu à La Haye, du 18 Août au 23 Août 1913, (Bern), pp. 66–68, and p. 22 n. 347, RSP, Box 481.

  12. 12.

    Hardie to Schwimmer, 24 August 1914, RSP, Box 42.

  13. 13.

    For US journalism at the beginning of the war generally, see P. P. O’Brian (2013) ‘The American Press, Public, and the Reaction to the Outbreak of the First World War’, Diplomatic History, XXXVII(3), pp. 446–475.

  14. 14.

    Schwimmer to Furuhjelm, 27 September 1914, RSP, Box 45.

  15. 15.

    Catt to President Wilson, n.d. (but possibly October 1914), RSP, Box 45. Schwimmer only managed to get hold of a copy of that letter in 1921.

  16. 16.

    Schwimmer to Wilson, 1 October 1914, RSP, Box 45.

  17. 17.

    Schwimmer to the Dutch feminist Frederika Wilhelmina (Mien) van Wulfften Palthe-Broese van Groenou, 16 December 1914, RSP, Box 50.

  18. 18.

    Catt to Schwimmer, 25 November 1914, RSP, Box 48.

  19. 19.

    Ibid .

  20. 20.

    Schwimmer’s lecture at Wodwarth & Lothrops, Washington DC, 15 December 1914, RSP, Box 50.

  21. 21.

    C. R. Marchand, for instance, delineates the developmental curve of peace groups from small, impoverished peace societies with little political influence in the 1890s to relatively affluent and respectable groups by 1912 and their subsequent downfall in (1972) The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1898–1918 (Princeton).

  22. 22.

    Addams understood the need for ‘grass-roots’ pacifism during the First World War, for she worryingly noticed her Chicago Hull House immigrant neighbourhood (stemming from multiple European nationalities) splitting into Triple Alliance and Triple Entente residents as well. See Addams (1922) Peace and Bread in Time of War (New York), p. 3. Further, her (1907) Newer Ideals of Peace (New York), pre-dating William James’s ‘The Moral Equivalent of War’ by three years, is an early quest for alternative peace practices, later displayed by Schwimmer.

  23. 23.

    Schwimmer to Catt, 16 December 1914, RSP, Box 50. Catt for her part secretly tended to call Addams ‘slippery Jane’.

  24. 24.

    Titles on American pacifism are prolific: M. E. Curti (1929) The American Peace Crusade, 1815–1860 (Durham) and (1959) Peace or War: The American Struggle, 1636–1936 (Boston); P. Brock (1968) Pacifism in the United States, from the Colonial Era to the First World War (Princeton); C. Chatfield (1971) For Peace and Justice: Pacifism in America, 1914–1941 (Knoxville) and with R. Kleidman (1992) The American Peace Movement: Ideals and Activism (New York); D. S. Patterson (1976) Toward a Warless World: The Travail of the American Peace Movement, 1887–1914 (Bloomington); C. DeBenedetti (1980) The Peace Reform in American History (Bloomington); C. F. Howlett and R. Lieberman (2008) A History of the American Peace Movement: From Colonial Times to the Present (Lewiston).

  25. 25.

    Schwimmer, ‘A Page of Wilsoniana’, n.d., p. 2, RSP, Box 44.

  26. 26.

    For elements of elitism in the almost exclusively (upper-) middle class, well-educated strata that formed peace societies, see D. S. Patterson (1973) ‘An Interpretation of the American Peace Movement, 1898–1914’, in C. Chatfield (ed.) Peace Movements in America (New York), pp. 20–38, and M. A. Lutzker (1996) ‘The American Peace Movement: Themes and Contradictions, 1895–1917’, in H. L. Dyck and P. Brock (eds.) The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective (Toronto), pp. 320–340, esp. p. 321.

  27. 27.

    For US pacifist dissent from 1914 onwards see, for instance, B. J. Steinson (1982) American Women’s Activism in World War I (New York) and F. H. Early (1997) A World Without War: How U.S. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted World War I (Syracuse).

  28. 28.

    Schwimmer to the German feminist Lida Gustava Heymann, 22 February 1938, RSP, Box 502.

  29. 29.

    For US socialist reactions to the war, see K. Kennedy (1995) ‘Declaring War on War: Gender and the American Socialist Attack on Militarism, 1914–1918’, Journal of Women’s History, VII(2), pp. 27–51.

  30. 30.

    See, for example, K. Jensen (2008) Mobilizing Minerva: American Women in the First World War (Urbana).

  31. 31.

    Equality feminists did not favour any distinction based on gender, unlike their counterparts, difference or maternalist feminists, who considered women as inherently different to men, due to their biological function of childbearing. Contemporary feminist theory has critiqued this very rigid distinction and questioned its overall validity and especially the retrospect applicability of this dualist concept.

    For further elaborations on equality versus difference ideologies, see L. Alcoff (1988) ‘Cultural Feminism versus Post-Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory’, Signs, XIII(3), pp. 405–436; J. W. Scott (1988) ‘Deconstructing Equality-Versus-Difference: Or, the Uses for Post-Structuralist Theory for Feminism’, Feminist Studies, XIV(1), pp. 33–50; N. F. Cott (1989) ‘What’s in a Name? The Limits of “Social Feminism;” or, Expanding the Vocabulary of Women’s History’, The Journal of American History, LXXVI(3), pp. 809–829; K. Arnup, A. Lévesque, and R. Roach Pierson (eds.) with the assistance of M. Brennan (1990) Delivering Motherhood: Maternal Ideologies and Practices in the 19th and 20th Centuries (London); G. Bock and S. James (eds.) (1992) Beyond Equality and Difference: Citizenship, Feminist Politics and Female Subjectivity (London).

  32. 32.

    This last meeting was in preparation for the notorious Ford Peace Ship expedition, financed by the car magnate and sailing to Europe in December 1915 in order to conceptualize and generate mediation. A discussion of this cruise would go beyond the scope of this chapter. For very biased accounts, see B. Hershey (1967) The Odyssey of Henry Ford and the Great Peace Ship (New York) and B. S. Kraft (1978) The Peace Ship: Henry Ford’s Pacifist Adventure in the First World War (New York).

  33. 33.

    Schwimmer to the Texas heiress and social activist Lola Maverick Lloyd, 20 August 1915, RSP, Box 61.

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    Dagmar Wernitznig

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    Justin Quinn Olmstead

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Wernitznig, D. (2017). Between Front Lines: The Militant Pacifist Rosika Schwimmer (1877–1948) and Her Total Peace Effort. In: Olmstead, J. (eds) Reconsidering Peace and Patriotism during the First World War. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51301-0_7

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