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Data Protection and Privacy: (In)visibilities and Infrastructures pp 31–57Cite as

Is There a Right to Offline Alternatives in a Digital World?

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Part of the Law, Governance and Technology Series book series (ISDP,volume 36)

Abstract

More and more offline devices are weaved into the Internet of Things. Besides beneficial effects, the ubiquitous digitization also poses substantial risks for users’ privacy and self-determination. In this paper, we discuss whether a right to offline alternatives, hence to lead a non-digital life, might be a reasonable demand to counter such worries. In the search for answers, we investigate the – possible – societal utility and reasonability of such an ambition, as well as potential damages individuals or even the society might suffer, if such a right would be established. Furthermore, relevant aspects of the current legal framework are presented, followed by an analysis of former and ongoing Internet of Things regulation initiatives, asking whether the right to offline alternatives may have already been recognized and part of regulatory balancing processes.

Keywords

  • Offline alternatives
  • Internet of things
  • Policy
  • Data protection

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Andrés Molina-Markham et al., “Private memoirs of a smart meter,” Proceedings of the 2nd ACM workshop on embedded sensing systems for energy-efficiency in building, ACM, 2010.

  2. 2.

    With this, we particularly dissociate ourselves from the 2013 hype that evolved, for example, around the so called #offlineday (see: http://kevinkyburz.ch/am-15-dezember-mache-ich-einen-offlineday/ (accessed March 3, 2016)) which is rather about a temporary disconnect from the internet or social networks in order to recharge and regain productivity, which is why its supporters were derogatively labeled as disconnectionists and heavily criticized for their lack of fundamental critique of worrying broader developments of the digital society: https://newrepublic.com/article/116618/technologys-mindfulness-racket (accessed March 3, 2016).

  3. 3.

    Marco Ghiglieri, “I Know What You Watched Last Sunday A New Survey Of Privacy In HbbTV,” Workshop Web 2.0 Security & Privacy 2014 in conjunction with the IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 2014.

  4. 4.

    Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The railway journey: The industrialization of time and space in the nineteenth century (Oakland: University of California Press, 2014).

  5. 5.

    Garath Rhees, “The hidden dangers of cycling,” garethreeds.org, last modified January 10, 2012, accessed February 29, 2016, http://garethrees.org/2012/01/10/shadwell/.

  6. 6.

    Shoshana Zuboff, “Big other: surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization,” Journal of Information Technology 30(1) (2015).

  7. 7.

    European Commission Press Release, eCall: automated emergency call for road accidents mandatory in cars from 2015 (Brussels, 13 June 2013).

  8. 8.

    Elisabeth Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early Modern Europe (2 Vols. ed.) (Cambridge/UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).

  9. 9.

    Manuel Castells, “Information Technology, Globalization and Social Development,” (UNRISD Discussion Paper No. 114, UN Research Center, September 1999: 8), accessed March 8, 2016, http://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/f270e0c066f3de7780256b67005b728c/$file/dp114.pdf.

  10. 10.

    Urs Stäheli, “Aus dem Rhythmus fallen. Zur öffentlichen Entnetzung,“ Kursbuch 177, 2013: 66–77.

  11. 11.

    Stäheli explicitly turns against equating „denetworking“ with the private. However, his idea of the private resembles the bourgeois notion of a private life-world as opposed to “the public.” Of course, such an understanding of privacy is one-dimensional, much too crude, and illegitimately reifies the plurality and fluidity of privacy practices as a stable thing called “privacy”, being juxtaposed to “the public”. If we set out from such an simplistic notion of privacy, then Stäheli is right to claim that equating “denetworking” with this notion dissolves any potential for criticism. However, as we will demonstrate below, contrary to what Stäheli believes we still may reconcile “denetworking” with a critical and emancipatory idea of privacy.

  12. 12.

    Stäheli, “Aus dem Rhythmus fallen,“ 67, 68.

  13. 13.

    Stäheli, “Aus dem Rhythmus fallen,“ 71.

  14. 14.

    Georg Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” in The Blackwell City Reader, ed. Gary Bridge, and Sophie Watson (Chichester: Wiley Blackwell, 2010), 103–110.

  15. 15.

    Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” 103–104, 108.

  16. 16.

    Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” 106.

  17. 17.

    Simmel, “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” 107.

  18. 18.

    Stäheli, “Aus dem Rhythmus fallen,“ 75.

  19. 19.

    Fran Tonkiss, “The Ethics of Indifference: Community and Solitude in the City,” International Journal of Cultural Studies 6, No. 3 (2003).

  20. 20.

    Tonkiss, “Ethics of Indifference,” 300.

  21. 21.

    Helen Nissenbaum, Privacy in Context: Technology, Policy, and the Integrity of Social Life (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010).

  22. 22.

    Nissenbaum, Privacy in Context, 303.

  23. 23.

    Bruno Latour, “Where Are the Missing Masses? The Sociology of a Few Mundane Artifacts,” in Shaping Technology/Building Society. Studies in Sociotechnical Change, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker and John Law (Cambridge/US: MIT Press, 1992), 225–259.

  24. 24.

    Latour, “Missing Masses”, 243.

  25. 25.

    Erhard Schüttpelz, „Ein absoluter Begriff. Zur Genealogie und Karriere des Netzwerkbegriffs,“ in Vernetzte Steuerung: Soziale Prozesse im Zeitalter technischer Netzwerke, ed. Stefan Kaufmann (Zürich: Chronos, 2007), 25–46.

  26. 26.

    Regulation (EU) 2015/758 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2015 concerning type-approval requirements for the deployment of the eCall in-vehicle system based on the 112 service and amending Directive 2007/46/EC (“eCall regulation“).

  27. 27.

    The regulation applies to vehicles of certain categories only, Art. 2 (1) eCall regulation, which, however, includes the average passenger car (“new types of passenger cars and light commercial vehicles”, rec. 11 eCall regulation).

  28. 28.

    Art. 6 (5) eCall regulation determines that only the last three GPS positions may be stored.

  29. 29.

    Art. 3 (3) eCall regulation; DIN EN 15722:2011; Volker Lüdemann, Christin Sengstacken, „Lebensretter eCall: Türöffner für neue Telematik-Dienstleistungen,“ RDV 30/4 (2014), 178.

  30. 30.

    Concerning the processing of personal data by eCall see “Opinion of the EDPS on the proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning type-approval requirements for the deployment of the eCall system and amending Directive 2007/46/EC,” EDPS, accessed March 14, 2016 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201311/20131128ATT75138/20131128ATT75138EN.pdf.

  31. 31.

    Cf. “eCall – Do you have any concerns for your privacy? You shouldn’t…,” Newsroom Editor, European Commission, accessed March 7, 2016: https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/ecall-%E2%80%93-do-you-have-any-concerns-your-privacy-you-shouldnt.

  32. 32.

    Article 29 Working Party, “Working document on data protection and privacy implications in eCall initiative,” Opinion 125, adopted on September 26, 2006.

  33. 33.

    Art. 4 eCall regulation (“(…) all new types of vehicles referred to in Article 2 (…).”) and rec. 12 eCall regulation.

  34. 34.

    Cf. ECJ, C-362/14, para. 60: [The European Union’s] “institutions are subject to review of their compatibility with, in particular, the Treaties, general principles of law and fundamental rights (…)”.

  35. 35.

    Explanations relating to the Charter of Fundamental Rights (2007/C 303/02), Art. 8.

  36. 36.

    Jürgen Kühling, „Der Fall der Vorratsdatenspeicherungsrichtlinie und der Aufstieg des EuGH zum Grundrechtsgericht“ NVwZ (2014), 681–685, referring to ECJ C-293/12 and C-495-12.

  37. 37.

    Without prejudice to further fundamental rights that might be affected.

  38. 38.

    E.g. judgement of the Court in joined cases C-92/09 and C-93/09, para 52.

  39. 39.

    Ino Augsberg, „Charta der Grundrechte der Europäischen Union (GRC)“ in Europäisches Unionsrecht: Vertrag über die Europäische Union - Vertrag über die Arbeitsweise der Europäischen Union - Charta der Grundrechte der Europäischen Union, Kommentar, vol. 7, ed. Hans von der Groeben, Jürgen Schwarze, and Armin Hatje (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2015), Art. 8, para. 1.

  40. 40.

    Cf. judgement of the German Constitutional Court, BVerfGE 65, 1 (45); see also judgement of the ECJ in joint cases C-293/12, C-594/12, para. 33.

  41. 41.

    Augsberg, „GRC“, Art. 8 para. 6.

  42. 42.

    Jan Bergmann, Handlexikon der Europäischen Union (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2015), Grundrechtecharta der EU, III.

  43. 43.

    Augsberg, „GRC“, Art. 7 para. 11.

  44. 44.

    Jan Bergmann, Handlexikon der Europäischen Union, Grundrechtecharta der EU, IV.

  45. 45.

    Art. 7 (2) Charter.

  46. 46.

    Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data.

  47. 47.

    Strictly speaking, the scope – in terms of conditions and limitations for the exercise of the right of Art. 8 of the Charter – is shaped by Directive 95/46/EC, Art. 8 of the ECHR and on the Council of Europe Convention of 28 January 1981 for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data; cf. Explanations relating to the Charter of Fundamental Rights (2007/C 303/02), Official Journal of the European Union – 303/17, Art. 8.

  48. 48.

    ECJ, C-101/01, para. 82.

  49. 49.

    ECJ, C-293/12, C-594/12, para. 40.

  50. 50.

    Rec. 4 eCall directive.

  51. 51.

    Günther Oettinger, “Von 0:4 zu 4.0: Wenn Europa mit Amerika mithalten will, braucht es eine digitale Strategie,” Zeitschrift IP - Internationale Politik, July/August (2015).

  52. 52.

    Communication from the Commission to the Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) in Europe: steps towards a policy framework, Com(2007) 96 final (2007) (Brussels, 15 March 2007).

  53. 53.

    Communication from the Commission to the Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Internet of Things – An action plan for Europe, COM(2009) 278 final, Brussels, 18 June 2009.

  54. 54.

    Communication from the Commission to the Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, A Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe, SWD(2015) 100 final, Brussels, 6 May 2015.

  55. 55.

    Adam Greenfield, Everyware: The dawning age of ubiquitous computing (Berkeley: New Riders Publishing, 2006), 451.

  56. 56.

    “RFID and Informed Consent – Using and Removing RFID Functionality,” EDRi, last modified December 5, 2007, https://edri.org/edrigramnumber5-23rfid-informed-consent/ (accessed March 13, 2016).

  57. 57.

    Gérald Santucci, “The Internet of Things: The Way Ahead” in Internet of Things - Global Technological and Societal Trends from Smart Environments and Spaces to Green ICT, ed. Ovidiu Vermessan, Peter Friess, (Aalborg: River Publishers, 2011), 78.

  58. 58.

    Bernard Benhamou, “Organizing Internet Architecture,” (Esprit, May 2006), 14, accessed March 5, 2016 http://www.netgouvernance.org/esprit-eng.pdf.

  59. 59.

    “Opinion of the European Data Protection Supervisor on Promoting Trust in the Information Society by Fostering Data Protection and Privacy,” EDPS, 19.03.2010, accessed March 5, 2016 https://secure.edps.europa.eu/EDPSWEB/webdav/site/mySite/shared/Documents/Consultation/Opinions/2010/10-03-19_Trust_Information_Society_EN.pdf. European Parliament, Report on the Internet of Things, A7–0154/2010, Rapporteur: Maria Badia I Cutchet (10 May 2010) retrieved at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A7-2010-0154+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN (accessed March 25, 2016).

  60. 60.

    “New EC Expert Group on the Internet of Things,” EDRi, last modified October 6, 2010. https://edri.org/edrigramnumber8-19expert-group-rfid-iot/ (accessed March 13, 2016).

  61. 61.

    European Commission Information Society and Media Directorate-General, Meeting Minutes of IoT Expert Group of 19 November 2010, retrieved at: http://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regexpert/index.cfm?do=groupDetail.groupDetailDoc&id=7556&no=3 (accessed March 25 2016).

  62. 62.

    Gérald Santucci, “Privacy in the Digital Economy: Requiem or Renaissance? An essay on the future of privacy,” The Privacy Surgeon (September 2013), http://www.privacysurgeon.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Privacy-in-the-Digital-Economy-final.pdf (accessed March 25 2016).

  63. 63.

    Gérald Santucci, “Towards Connectobjectome: The age when the totality of all objects become connected,” in The Internet of Things 2012: New Horizons, ed. Ian G Smith, (Halifax: Platinum Print, 2012), 9.

  64. 64.

    see “Conclusions of the Internet of Things public consultation,” https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/conclusions-internet-things-public-consultation (accessed March 13, 2016).

  65. 65.

    ETNO, “The industrial internet needs broadband investment and the right regulation,” last modified 15 December 2015, retrieved at: http://www.politico.eu/sponsored-content/the-industrial-internet-needs-broadband-investment-and-the-right-regulation/ (accessed March 13, 2016).

  66. 66.

    Which is accompanied by a striking rhetoric shift in the framing of the pros and cons of the digital future towards an extremely optimistic view even by EU functionaries in high positions: “The age of the digital nature[:] Connected objects of all sorts become autonomous and operate according to their designed purposes. Natural and cyborg interfaces link people with their hyper-connected environments and optimize their functionalities seamlessly like in a new stage of nature. The basic design is not hostile but rather intended to please the needs and preferences of individuals.” Peter Friess, Rolf Riemenschneider, “New Horizons for the Internet of Things in Europe,” in Building the Hyperconnected Society: IoT Research and Innovation Value Chains, Ecosystems and Markets, ed. Ovidiu Vermesan, Peter Friess (Aalborg: River Publishers, 2015), 6.

  67. 67.

    Santucci, “Privacy in the Digital Economy,” 11–13.

  68. 68.

    European Commission: A Digital Single Market Strategy for Europe. See also, European Council‚“Compact for Growth and Jobs,” EUCO 76/12 (Brussels, 29 June 2012).

  69. 69.

    Florian Sprenger, Christoph Engemann, „Im Netz der Dinge: Zur Einleitung,“ in Internet der Dinge: Über smarte Objekte, intelligente Umgebungen und die technische Durchdringung der Welt, ed. Florian Sprenger, and Christoph Engemann (Bielefeld: transcript Verlag, 2015), 45. Geert Loovink, “Hermes on the Hudson: Notes on Media Theory after Snowden,” e-flux journal #54, (04/2014).

  70. 70.

    Mary Meeker, “Liang Wu, Internet Trends D11 Conference,” 29.05.2013, retrieved at: http://www.kpcb.com/blog/2013-internet-trends (21.03.2016).

  71. 71.

    Manuel Castells, The Power of Identity, The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture, Volume 2 (Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 303.

  72. 72.

    Tim O’Reilly, “Open Data and Algorithmic Regulation,” in Beyond Transparency: Open Data and the Future of Civic Innovation, ed. Brett Goldstein, and Lauren Dyson (San Francisco: Code for America Press, 2013).

  73. 73.

    Besides data from public datasets (administrative (open) data and statistics about populations, economic indicators, education, etc.), data from social media, sensors and mobile phones are being increasingly used by policymakers at various levels all over the globe. See: Martijn Poel, et al., “Data for Policy: A Study of Big Data and Other Innovative Data-Driven Approaches for Evidence-Informed Policymaking,” Report about the State-of-the-Art, (Amsterdam: technopolis, Oxford Internet Institute, Center for European Policy Studies, 2015).

  74. 74.

    Parmy Olson, “The Quantified Other: Nest and Fitbit Chase a Lucrative Side Business,” Forbes, Issue 05.05.2014, Accessed March 22, 2016, http://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2014/04/17/the-quantified-other-nest-and-fitbit-chase-a-lucrative-side-business/#41b161d45403.

  75. 75.

    Evgeny Morozov, “The rise of data and the death of politics,” The Guardian, Issue 20.07.2014, accessed March 22, 2016, http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jul/20/rise-of-data-death-of-politics-evgeny-morozov-algorithmic-regulation.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research, Breslauer Str. 48, 76139, Karlsruhe, Germany

    Murat Karaboga

  2. Internationales Zentrum für Ethik in den Wissenschaften, Universität Tübingen, Wilhelmstr. 19, 72074, Tübingen, Germany

    Tobias Matzner

  3. Unabhängiges Landeszentrum für Datenschutz Schleswig-Holstein, Holstenstraße 98, 24103, Kiel, Germany

    Hannah Obersteller

  4. Universität Kassel Fachbereich 05 Soziologische Theorie, Nora-Platiel-Str. 5, 34109, Kassel, Germany

    Carsten Ochs

Authors
  1. Murat Karaboga
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  2. Tobias Matzner
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  3. Hannah Obersteller
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  4. Carsten Ochs
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Murat Karaboga .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Tilburg Institute for Law, Technology, & Society, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Ronald Leenes

  2. Law, Science, Technology, & Society (LSTS), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium

    Rosamunde van Brakel, Serge Gutwirth & Paul De Hert,  & 

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Karaboga, M., Matzner, T., Obersteller, H., Ochs, C. (2017). Is There a Right to Offline Alternatives in a Digital World?. In: Leenes, R., van Brakel, R., Gutwirth, S., De Hert, P. (eds) Data Protection and Privacy: (In)visibilities and Infrastructures. Law, Governance and Technology Series(), vol 36. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50796-5_2

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