Abstract
This chapter analyzes the present international scene over these last decades, focusing in particular on certain anthropological works (Mauss, Frazer, Douglas and Girard) alongside contributions from political science and sociology. Here, the repression of destructive impulses is shown to return because States are no longer as powerful as they were in previous centuries. They are becoming weaker and weaker because they are not adequate to the logic of globalization and their territorial sovereignty is powerless to face with efficiency non-State actors, such as networks of terrorists or all types of infra communities. Moreover, States are less and less capable of assuming social cohesion, solidarity, and the production of sense and values. At the same time, they are unable to provide satisfactory protection of their citizens and to ensure a decent production of wealth. As a consequence, the notion of sovereignty has become more and more inadequate, with sovereignty challenged by the uprising of non-State violence; particularly under the form of transnational terrorism, identity, ethnic and religious infra-State conflicts now spreading at a transnational level. These types of conflicts frequently result in persecutions, mass slaughter and sometimes genocide, in regard to which the figure of the scapegoat and the notion of sacrifice play a cardinal role in the social process of the rationalization of violence.
Terms marked with an asterisk in the text refer to the definitions in the glossary.
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Notes
- 1.
Bertrand Badie, L’État importé, l’occidentalisation de l’ordre politique, Paris, Fayard, 1992, p. 69 sq.
- 2.
Ibid., p. 227 sq.
- 3.
Cf., notably regional pride and the ‘neoregionalism which has returned in its own right: destined to protect States, this time it has only served to threaten them’, cf., Bertrand Badie, Un Monde sans souveraineté, les États entre ruse et responsabilité, Paris, Fayard, 1999, p. 177 sq.
- 4.
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 2e ed., Londres, Verso, 1991.
- 5.
On the formation of these primordial identities (identités primordiales), cf., Jean-François Bayart, L’Illusion identitaire, Paris, Fayard, 1996, p. 92 sq.
- 6.
Ibid., p. 95.
- 7.
Bayart, op. cit., p. 90.
- 8.
Ibid., p. 92, sq.
- 9.
Bayart, op. cit., p. 113.
- 10.
Ibid., p. 101.
- 11.
Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1983, p. 56.
- 12.
Geraint Hughes, ‘The Soviet-Afghan War, 1978–1989: An Overview’, Defence Studies, 8 (3), Sept. 2008, pp. 326–350.
- 13.
Jeffrey Haynes, ‘Religion, Secularisation and Politics: A Postmodern Conspectus’, Third World Quarterly, 18 (4), Sept. 1997, pp. 709–728.
- 14.
To understand these very different political approaches and examine the plurality of these political developments, cf., Bertrand Badie, Les Deux États, Pouvoir et société en Occident et en terre d’Islam, Paris, Fayard, 1986.
- 15.
Bernard Lewis, ‘Islamic Revolution’, The New York Review of Books, June 30, 1983.
- 16.
Martina Avanza, ‘Une histoire de la Padanie: la Ligue du Nord et l’usage politique du passé’, Annales, (1), Jan–Mar 2003, pp. 85–107.
- 17.
On the decomposition of countries and the identity paradox, cf., Bertrand Badie, La Fin des territoires, Essai sur le désordre international et sur l’utilité sociale du respect, Paris, Fayard, 1995, pp. 101–179.
- 18.
Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, chap. V, [1929], trans., New York, Jonathan Cape & Harrison Smith, 2010, p. 90.
- 19.
Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego [1921], op. cit., p. 20.
- 20.
Sigmund Freud, The Birth of Psychoanalysis—Letters to Wilhelm Fliess, trans., Paris, PUF, 2006, p. 20.
- 21.
Eugène Enriquez, De la Horde à l’État, essai de psychanalyse du lien social, Paris Gallimard, 1983, p. 72.
- 22.
Ibid., p. 83.
- 23.
For reconstitution and analysis of the socio-political trajectory of the country from the advent in 1973 of the single party of Rwanda, cf., André Guichaoua, Rwanda, de la guerre au génocide: les politiques criminelles au Rwanda (1990–1994), Paris, La Découverte, 2010.
- 24.
This term takes on positive and rewarding connotations in returning, in fact, to the ground on which Hannah Arendt defined the masses, cf., Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, [1948], New York, (NY), Schocken Books, 2004, the chapter entitled: A Classless Society, pp. 407–449.
- 25.
This Rwandan radio station broadcast on July 8, 1993 to July 31, 1994 and played a significant role in the genocide, cf., Jean-Pierre Chrétien (Ed.), Rwanda, les médias du génocide, Paris, Karthala, 1995; Jacques Sémelin, Purifier et détruire, usages politiques des massacres et génocides, Paris, Seuil, 2005, p. 158.
- 26.
Alice Krieg-Planque, ‘Purification ethnique’. Une formule et son histoire, Paris, CNRS, 2003; Ivana Macek, ‘Sarajevan Soldier Story, Perceptions of War & Morality in Bosnia’, in: Paul Richards (Ed.), No Peace, No War, An Anthropology of Contemporary Armed Conflicts, Oxford, James Currey, 2005, pp. 57–76.
- 27.
A consequence of the breakup of Yugoslavia, itself linked to the fall of communist regimes in Eastern Europe in 1989, this war was brought to the Serbian people and took hold of Croatian and Bosnian. It began on April 6, 1992 when the JNA attacked Bosnia and Herzegovina, which had declared its independence on March 1. It ended with the Dayton Agreement on December 14, 1995.
- 28.
The fall of Vukovar constituted one of the most serious episodes, cf., Muhamedin Kullashi, Effacer l’autre, identités culturelles et identités politiques dans les Balkans, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2005, p. 120 sq.
- 29.
The massacre of Srebrenica is considered as the ‘worst massacre committed in Europe since the end of the Second World War’ and was judged to be a genocide by the TPIY (The International Criminal Court for Former Yugoslavia) and the ICJ (International Court of Justice) on several occasions. In February 2006, the ICJ rejected the liability of Serbia for the genocide but stressed that the Serbian State did not take ‘all measures within its power’ to prevent these events. In March 2010, the Serbian parliament recognized the Srebrenica massacre, a gesture perceived by the bodies of the European Union as a first signal for reconciliation throughout the region. cf., James Gow (Ed.), Dark Histories, Brighter Futures? The Balkans and Black Sea Region: European Union frontiers. War Crimes and Confronting the Past, Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 7 (3), Sept 2007, pp. 345–515.
- 30.
Jacques Hassoun, Les Passions intraitables, Paris, Aubier, 1989.
- 31.
Jacques Hassoun, ‘Rien n'est plus réaliste que la haine’, in: Bertrand Piret (Ed.), La Haine, l’étranger et la pulsion de mort, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2008, p. 46.
- 32.
Ibid.
- 33.
Joseph Schopenhauer, Parerga et Paralipomena, Part II, XXXI, trans., quoted by Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, op. cit., p. 49.
- 34.
The analyst then develops his remarks by referring to the Jewish caftan, to the beards and curls to conclude that this is not the one who horrified the Nazis, but rather ‘a German Jew of Mosaic confession, who spoke perfect German and was bristling with decorations’, cf., Hassoun, op. cit., p. 46.
- 35.
Marie Moscovici, Le Meurtre et la langue, Paris, Métailié, 2002, p. 27.
- 36.
Badie, L’État importé…op. cit., p. 264.
- 37.
Bernard Lewis, ‘Les Arabes devant l’Occident: les sources du ressentiment’, Débat, (68), Jan–Feb 1992, pp. 102–116.
- 38.
Badie, L’État importé…op. cit., p. 263.
- 39.
Ibid., pp. 263–264.
- 40.
Pamala L. Griset, Sue Mahan (Eds.), Terrorism in Perspective, Thousand Oaks, Sage publications, 2008.
- 41.
Unlike many clichés conveyed by common sense, terrorism is not a new phenomenon, far from it. Indeed, recall that Russia experienced in the nineteenth century a major terrorist wave of a socialist and anarchist character. Such propaganda of the deed developed in France with many anarchist bombings between 1892 and 1894, expressed the same logic and marked the first age of terrorism. Then came the second age, inaugurated by the Congress of Berlin. It operated in 1878 a territorial division between the three empires—Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian and Russian—thus determining a balkanization of Central and Eastern Europe that exacerbated separatist aspirations of dependent peoples and ultimately lead to the Balkan wars 1912–1913. As such, this international summit was the source of an era of terrorist violence in this time with a nationalist character which will continue until independence of the colonies, cf., Marc Hecker, ‘Les trois âges du terrorisme’, Commentaire, 31 (121), print. 2008, pp. 283–286.
- 42.
Philippe Braud, Violences politiques, Paris, Seuil, 2004, p. 71 sq.; Robert O. Keohane, ‘The Globalization of Informal Violence, Theories of World Politics, and the “Liberalism of fear”’, in: Robert O. Keohane, (Ed.), Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World, London, Routledge, 2002, pp. 272–287.
- 43.
Alex P. Schmid, Albert J. Jongman, Political Terrorism, Amsterdam, North Holland Publishing Company, 1988.
- 44.
In this case, remember the pragmatic collusion that could sometimes develop between the IRA, the FLNC, ETA and some Palestinian groups. The interchangeability of terrorists that resulted has given them a greater ability to remain elusive, which has helped to strengthen all their actions.
- 45.
Peter Berger, Thomas Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality. A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, [1967], New York, Penguin, 1996.
- 46.
On this point, we will refer to the work of Pierre Bourdieu, ‘L’emprise du journalisme’, ARSS, (101–102), 1994, pp. 3–9 ; Patrick Champagne, ‘La vision médiatique’, in: Pierre Bourdieu (Ed.), La Misère du monde, Paris, Seuil, 1993; pp. 61–79.
- 47.
Axel Honneth notes that, ‘For the victims of disrespect […] engaging in political action also has the direct function of tearing them out of the crippling situation of passively endured humiliation and helping them, in turn, on their way to a new, positive relation-to-self’, cf., The Struggle for Recognition. The Moral Grammar of Social Conflicts, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1996, p. 164).
- 48.
Concepts closer to what Norbert Elias called the established and outsider groups, cf., Norbert Elias Reflections on a Life…op. cit., p. 122; for more developments, cf., Norbert Elias, John L. Scotson, The Established and the Outsiders: a Sociological Enquiry into Community Problems, Londres, Frank Cass, 1965.
- 49.
Philippe Braud, ‘La violence politique : repères et problèmes’, in: Philippe Braud, (Ed.), La Violence politique dans les démocraties européennes occidentales, Paris L’Harmattan, 1993, p. 22.
- 50.
Two examples among many others: (1) in 1973, an attack was committed by Armenians in Lausanne. Why this city? Because 50 years earlier, the victors of the First World War signed the eponymous treaty that came on the promise of the Treaty of Sevres (1919) which they undertook in favor of an independent Armenia. (2) The Madrid bombing in 2004 claimed by al Qaeda. Why Spain? Because every year the country loudly celebrates the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1492, which is a humiliation for the Islamists and a permanent source of resentment. Cf., Marc Ferro, Le Ressentiment dans l’histoire, comprendre notre temps, Paris, Odile Jacob, 2007, pp. 7–8.
- 51.
With the attacks of September 11, 2001, striking simultaneously, the US world power, the West, New York the center of the world economy and Manhattan, the center of global finance and globalization, Washington and the Pentagon, but also 91 States through their resulting victims.
- 52.
Paul Wilkinson, ‘Terrorist Tactics and Targets: New Risks to World Order’, Conflict Studies, (236), Dec. 1990, pp. 1–21.
- 53.
Donna Schlagheck, International Terrorism: An Introduction to the Concepts and Actors, Lexington, Lexington Books, 1988, p. 91 sq.
- 54.
Tobias Kelly, Alpa Shah (Eds.), ‘A Double-Edged Sword: Protection and State Violence’, Critique of Anthropology, Special Issue, 26 (3), Sept. 2006, pp. 251–348.
- 55.
Paul Wilkinson, ‘The Role of the Military in Combatting Terrorism’, Terrorism and Political Violence, 8 (3), Aut. 1996, pp. 1–11. During the 1970s—the famous dark years (Die Bleierne Zeit) - at the time of the Red Army Faction, this was an important social debate in the Federal Republic of Germany. In regard to the Italian Red Brigades, cf., Luigi Bonanate, ‘Les années de plomb: une histoire dépassée? Anatomie du terrorisme italien’, Confluences en Méditerranée, (20), 1996–1997 pp. 51–60.
- 56.
Marcel Mauss, Œuvres, Les Fonctions sociales du sacré, “Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice” [1899], Paris, Minuit, 1968, p. 302. (Collected Writings—The Social Function of the Sacred, ‘Essay on the Nature and Function of Sacrifice’).
- 57.
For the developments of this thesis cf., the two works of René Girard, Le Bouc émissaire, Paris, Grasset, 1982 ; La Violence et le sacré, Paris, Grasset, 1972.
- 58.
Girard, Le Bouc émissaire, op. cit., p. 35.
- 59.
Hence the ambiguity of the neutral term (φάρμακον, pharmakon) could mean either cure or drugs that poison or venom. Jacques Derrida analyzed in Plato’s Pharmacy opposite meanings of the term pharmakos in ancient Greece, from a reflection on the Phaedrus of Plato. Indeed, in this dialogue, Plato compares writing to a drug cf., La Pharmacie de Platon, texte repris dans La Dissémination, Paris, Seuil, 1972.
- 60.
This was a ceremony performed at the time of Aristophanes (fifth century BC.) And it was still held every summer in the lifetime of Pausanias (second century). We are aware of this sacrifice through the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (fourth century BC.). Although his work is now lost, we know many extracts with the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry (234–305).
- 61.
Lucien Scubla, ‘Ceci n'est pas un meurtre ou comment le sacrifice contient la violence’, in: Françoise Héritier (Ed.), De la Violence, vol. 2, Paris, Odile Jacob, 1999, p. 153 sq. The reference to the celebrated work of the painter Henri Magritte, “Ceci n'est pas une pipe”, being a manner of emphasizing the eminent constituent power of representations.
- 62.
Ibid., p. 154.
- 63.
Ibid.
- 64.
In this regard, in The Golden Bough, James George Frazer presents us with the feast of the bear among the Aino (Japanese people who lived in the Japanese island of Yezo), as certainly the most paradigmatic case of all: you capture a bear that is then raised as a child, a woman making it suckle the breast and continues to cajole him. The wild beast lives with his master in his family, playing with his children and is treated exactly like them with great affection. It is the sacred bear, equivalent to a divinity. Then, after a certain stage of development, he is shut up in a wooden cage before killing him during a great collective ceremony. The killing in his honor is characterized by the deployment of abuse of all kinds of exceptional cruelty (impalement, crushing him between two poles, etc.). The animal is thus thrown to all members of the community, each to persecute the beast before obligation to finally eat. Frazer notes: ‘Not to partake of the feast would be equivalent to excommunication’, The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, [1911–1915], London, Macmillan, 1950, p. 507.
- 65.
Claude Lévi-Strauss, Anthropologie structurale, vol. 2, Paris, Plon, 1973, p. 53.
- 66.
Darquier de Pellepoix declared in 1978 in L’Express: ‘Antisemitism has not for us been a question of a certain conception of the world but a question of cleansing which will soon be resolved. We will soon have no more kikes. We have no more than 20,000 of them and Germany will be free of them’. Commenting on this declaration, the psychoanalyst Jacques Hassoun writes: ‘Death does not lie in hatred, only destruction. What is destructive in hatred is not human; everyone knows since Darquier de Pellepoix that we only saw kikes […] and it’s true: we cannot think of the death of another human being, because there is no other human being [in hatred]’, Hassoun, op. cit., p. 53.
- 67.
Florence Burgat, ‘La logique de la légitimation de la violence: animalité vs humanité’, in: Héritier (Ed.), op. cit., pp. 45–62.
- 68.
Axel Honneth, La Réification, trans., Paris, Gallimard, 2005, p. 71 sq.
- 69.
Girard, Le Bouc…op. cit., p. 37 sq.
- 70.
How not to recall Kafka’s short story here, The Metamorphosis, in which the author portrays a man who wakes up one morning in his family as a large insect. Therefore, his family puts him away, neglects and ultimately tortures him to death before throwing him in the garbage. After relegation and this killing, family life makes a fresh start: ‘They decided to pass that day resting and going for a stroll. Not only had they earned this break from work, but there was no question that they really needed it’, cf., Franz Kafka, The Metamorphosis, [1915], trans., Great Britain, Amazon, 2016, p. 104.
- 71.
The Great Plague or Black Death was an outbreak of bubonic pandemic, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which struck Europe’s population between 1348 and 1352. It was neither the first nor the last outbreak of this type, but it’s the only one wearing that name. This is the first in history to have been well described by contemporary chroniclers. It is estimated that it has decimated between 30 and 50% of the European population in 5 years, making about twenty-five million victims. It led lasting impact on European civilization, especially after the first wave, the disease reappeared regularly in different countries already contaminated, such as in France (1353–1355) and the UK (in 1360 and 1369).
- 72.
We should also mention the writer and poet Guillaume de Machaut who René Girard evokes at length in the first chapter of Le Bouc émissaire, op. cit.
- 73.
Cf., Pierre Sorlin, L’Antisémitisme allemand, Paris, Flammarion, 1969, p. 27 sq.; Jean Delumeau, La Peur en Occident, Paris, Fayard, 1978, p. 132 sq. et p. 356 sq.
- 74.
Girard, op. cit., pp. 41–62.
- 75.
We find all these elements in certain literary works. For example, in Animal Farm—George Orwell’s political fable—Snowball, a pig with an inventive spirit and opposed to the ideas of Napoleon—the dictator pig, inspired by Stalin—will be expelled from the farm by the latter. Considered a traitor by the enemy farmers, he will therefore be the scapegoat for all the misfortunes that hit soon after animal life (destruction of the mill and looting of all kinds, loss of keys, etc.).
- 76.
Girard, Le Bouc…op. cit. p. 53.
- 77.
Ibid. p. 34.
- 78.
Douglas checks his thesis examining the code of purity following Leviticus, which are unclean—and defiled—animals that do not fit in the general scheme or the story of creation, such as beasts swarming and crawling those who are neither bird nor fish nor meat animals; and those whose strange means of locomotion gives them unclassifiable or imperfect dimension in their category. The American anthropologist then shows that this text presents the rules for the human creature to continue dividing the activity—operator—initiated by Yahweh when he created the universe. In doing so, the man allows the divine blessing to be realized in the fertility of the land, and in return, he can present the pure fruit of the earth to the Temple. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo, [1967], London, Routledge, 2002, p. 51 sq.
- 79.
A danger even more pernicious—as Georges Vigarello has shown in his subtle Eliasian study—that since the eighteenth century, we associate the dirtiness with the death. cf., Le Propre et le sale, l’hygiène du corps depuis le Moyen-Âge, Paris, Seuil, 1985, p. 155 sq.
- 80.
Of the various types of fanatics—the inspired, the possessed, the initiated, the enraged, the terrorist and the suicide bomber—cf., Bernard Chouvier, Les Fanatiques, la folie de croire, Paris, Odile Jacob, 2009; cf., equally Michèle Ansart-Dourlen, ‘Fanatisme et résistance : le fanatisme comme passion politique et morale; ses ambivalences’ in : Ansart, Haroche (Éds.), Les Sentiments et le politique, op. cit., pp. 139–150.
- 81.
Émile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, [1893], London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
- 82.
Douglas, op. cit., p. 194.
- 83.
Braud, Violences politiques, op. cit., p. 196.
- 84.
Norbert Elias, What is Sociology?, trans., New York, Columbia University Press, 1984, 71 sq.
- 85.
Regarding this concept, cf., Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of Science, Theorical and Empirical Investigations, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1973, pp. 533–535. This type of self-fulfilling prophecy is also reminiscent of the constituent imagination mentioned by Paul Veyne, cf., Les Grecs ont-ils cru à leurs mythes, essai sur l’imagination constituante, Paris, Seuil, 1983.
- 86.
Girard, Le Bouc…op. cit., p. 64, 65.
- 87.
Ibid., p. 25.
- 88.
This term rationalization was coined for the first time in 1908 by psychoanalyst Ernest Jones, Papers on Psycho-Analysis, [1923], London, Forgotten Books, 2016.
- 89.
Freud’s defense mechanism meant, in 1915, the whole process that characterizes a particular neurosis. It also uses this phrase to emphasize the defensive use of certain psychic processes. In his book The Ego and its Defense Mechanisms, Anna Freud continues to deal with his father's work by presenting some of the main defensive methods: repression, regression, reaction formation, isolation, retroactive cancellation, projection, turning against itself, or rather, sublimation.
- 90.
Sigmund Freud Totem and Taboo. Resemblances between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics, [1913], London, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016, p. 77.
- 91.
Freud, Ibid. He explains this in a beautiful expression adopted from one of his patients, ‘a highly intelligent man, a former sufferer from compulsion neurosis’. ibid.
- 92.
Freud, The Third Lesson in: Five Lectures…op. cit., p. 34 sq.
- 93.
Norbert Elias, Involvement and Detachment, Oxford, Blackwell, 1987, p. 45 sq. After recalling that Man himself is a process, the author points out all the consequences and engages in a narrative analysis of Poe’s A Descent into the Maelstrom to show the management of critical processes: ‘People, in this case, still have a chance of controlling both their own strong affects and some aspect of the critical situation itself’.
- 94.
We borrow this expression from the French novelist, Louis Aragon, author of a text—Le mentir-vrai—that gave its title to the collection of some of his short stories. The narration is in this case in the transformation of facts kept in his memory, organized in a fictional composition which, although resulting from a lie and therefore, strictly speaking, a liar carries a truth that is closer to reality than a direct and immediate reproduction will facilitate.
- 95.
Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness…op. cit., p. 113 sq.; Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 3rd ed., Serif, London, 1996; Saul Friedlander, The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939–1945, New York, Harper Perennial, 2008.
- 96.
Sémelin, Purifier et détruire…op. cit., pp. 66–67.
- 97.
Regarding the memory of resentments, Pierre Ansart has distinguished four attitudes that can structure individual memory as well as collective memory: (1) The temptation of oblivion. (2) Re-recollection. (3) Revisions. (4) Intensifications, cf., Pierre Ansart, ‘Histoire et mémoire des ressentiments’, in: Pierre Ansart (Ed.), Le Ressentiment, Bruxelles, Bruylant, 2002, pp. 26–30 ; Ferro, op. cit.
- 98.
Philippe Aldrin, Sociologie politique des rumeurs, Paris, PUF, 2005. The author focuses specifically on institutional interactions and analyzes the constraints that bypass the modes weighing upon the public discourse adopted; Henri Boyer, Michel-Louis Rouquette (Eds.), Rumeurs en politique, Mots, (92), March 2010, pp. 5–66 ; Pascal Froissart (Éd.), Rumeurs, contes et faux-semblants, MédiaMorphoses, (19), March 2007, pp. 33–115.
- 99.
Gordon W. Allport, Leo J. Postman, The Psychology of Rumor, New York, Holt, 1947.
- 100.
According to the theory of communication at two levels (two steps flow), American sociologists Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson and Hazel Gaudet have developed in their book The People’s Choice, How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign, New York, Columbia University Press, 1944.
- 101.
Norbert Elias, The Society of Individuals, [1939, 1987], trans., New York, Continuum International Publishing, 2001, p. 54.
- 102.
Ibid., p. 60.
- 103.
Weber, Economy and Society, [1922], trans., Berkeley, University of California Press, 2013.
- 104.
Sami-Ali, De la Projection, une étude psychanalytique, Paris, Payot, 1970, p. 17 sq.
- 105.
Freud, Reflections on War and Death, op. cit., p. 50.
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Laroche, J. (2017). The Globalization of Non-state Violence. In: The Brutalization of the World. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50793-4_5
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