Abstract
In this chapter, we analyze the relationships between the Internet and its users in terms of situated cognition theory. We first argue that the Internet is a new kind of cognitive ecology , providing almost constant access to a vast amount of digital information that is increasingly more integrated into our cognitive routines. We then briefly introduce situated cognition theory and its species of embedded, embodied, extended, distributed and collective cognition. Having thus set the stage, we begin by taking an embedded cognition view and analyze how the Internet aids certain cognitive tasks. After that, we conceptualize how the Internet enables new kinds of embodied interaction , extends certain aspects of our embodiment, and examine how wearable technologies that monitor physiological, behavioral and contextual states transform the embodied self. On the basis of the degree of cognitive integration between a user and Internet resource, we then look at how and when the Internet extends our cognitive processes. We end this chapter with a discussion of distributed and collective cognition as facilitated by the Internet.
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Notes
- 1.
The current chapter uses the term ‘Internet’ as a catch-all term for all the various applications that are built on top of the Internet. This includes the World Wide Web, which is currently the most popular Internet application. As such, when we refer to the Internet as a cognitive ecology, we mean to suggest that the Web (as well as all other Internet applications, such as email) should be included as part of the cognitive ecology.
- 2.
Smart (2013), for example, suggests that the Web provides a new kind of ecological context in which advanced forms of machine intelligence might emerge.
- 3.
This represents a subset of all the areas that could have been listed. Other areas of notable interest from a cognitive science perspective include cloud computing (see Clowes 2015), the Semantic Web (see Smart, in press), and the Internet of Things (see Sect. Embedded Cognition).
- 4.
In particular, the use of linked data formats helps to separate issues of information presentation from issues of information representation. This kind of ‘presentational agnosticism’ is crucial when it comes to the flexible (and dynamic) creation of cues, prompts, and affordances that serve to shape the profile of human thought and action (see Smart, in press).
- 5.
It is also interesting to note the way in which this ubiquitous and ever-present ‘data environment’ helps to provide new opportunities for the implementation of location-aware intelligent systems, such as driverless cars and aerial drones.
- 6.
Aside from its cognitive and epistemic effects, the Internet also influences the structure and organization of social processes. This raises a wealth of (socio-economic, socio-cultural and socio-political) issues that are the current focus of attention within the social sciences and digital humanities (Lupton 2015; van Dijk 2012). An in-depth discussion of such issues is beyond the scope of the current chapter; however, it is important to bear in mind that the Internet may sometimes be seen to exert an indirect influence on cognitive processes as a result of its ability to reshape the wider social, political, cultural and economic landscapes in which much of human thought and action takes place.
- 7.
Whilst this is a helpful tripartite distinction between the species of situated cognition theory, it is not exhaustive. There are other views such as enactivism (Stewart et al. 2010), collective cognition (Smart et al. 2010b) and transactive memory theory (Wegner 1995) that are also non-Cartesian in that they are concerned with the way a cognitive agent is situated in the environment.
- 8.
Note that inasmuch as we see prospective memory as a form of memory in which we perform future actions without explicit instructions (see Baddeley et al. 2009), it is unclear to what extent we should regard reminder systems as implementing a form of (external) prospective memory.
- 9.
- 10.
Importantly, issues of embodiment often surface in the context of research into cognitive robotics (see Pfeifer and Bongard 2007). This highlights the importance of a non-biological conception of the body to embodied cognitive science: in the absence of such a conception it becomes difficult to adopt a unified perspective of research into a rich variety of materially-diverse (e.g., biological, robotic and virtual) embodied cognitive systems (see Smart and Sycara 2015).
- 11.
The thing that is important to remember, here, is that inasmuch as a non-biological resource counts as part of an organism’s body, then (relative to the claims made by proponents of embodied cognition) the resource is (potentially) poised to play a role in shaping that organism’s cognitive processing routines. As a result, if an Internet-enabled device counts as a part of the body (on the basis of functional criteria), then it seems that it should be just as much a focus of analytic attention for the proponent of embodied cognition as should a more conventional (i.e., biological) body part.
- 12.
A similar point is made by Kunze et al. (2013). They suggest that the use of mobile sensing technologies portends an era in which technology is able to recognize and monitor various forms of cognitive activity, revolutionizing our understanding of the factors that contribute to optimal cognitive performance, as well as providing new ways for technology to shape and scaffold our cognitive routines.
- 13.
- 14.
This is sometimes referred to as para-synthetic expression (Won et al. 2015).
- 15.
Explicit access to physiological information (e.g., heart rate) can also, on occasion, influence our sense of body ownership concerning a non-biological appendage (see Suzuki et al. 2013).
- 16.
Problems with trust often lie at the root of these concerns. Clark (2010), for example, claims people do not trust online content to the same extent that they trust information retrieved from bio-memory. From an empirical perspective, however, it is far from clear that people really do subject online information to the sort of evaluative scrutiny that would undermine its candidacy for cognitive incorporation (see Smart, in press). In addition, there a variety of reasons to suspect that at least some sources of online content can be implicitly trusted. Individuals may, for example, rely on the use of cloud-based personal data stores (see Van Kleek and O’Hara 2014) as a source of trusted information. They may also exploit a range of so-called ‘online reliability indicators’ (Smart and Shadbolt, in press) to guide metacognitive processes relating to information selection and endorsement (Arango-Muñoz 2013). Interestingly, processes that give rise to these indicators can, on occasion, be cast as a form of collective or distributed cognition. Ben-Naim et al. (2013), for example, present a distributed approach to the construction of (social) trust metrics, which are subsequently used to guide decisions relating to the endorsement of expert recommendations.
- 17.
Virtual team-working is a form of team-working that relies on the use of information and communications technology to support task-relevant forms of information exchange, information processing and inter-agent coordination (see Powell et al. 2004).
- 18.
Although it is easy to see such forms of processing as a relatively recent phenomenon, it is important to remember that technologically low-grade variants of socio-computational processing date back to at least the 18th century (see Grier 2013).
- 19.
A virtual team, in this case, is simply a collection of individuals that engages in a form of virtual team-working (see Powell et al. 2004). Crucially, nothing in this definition rules out the possibility that a virtual team could (at different points in time) also function as a real-world (or face-to-face) team. The result is that any form of (conventional) team cognition is also (potentially at least) a form of virtual team cognition. Consider, for example, how collaborative sensemaking technologies (e.g., Shrager et al. 2010; Toniolo et al. 2014) might be used to support the kinds of analyses undertaken by (e.g.) criminal investigators (Baber 2013).
- 20.
- 21.
In the case of Foldit, human pattern matching and spatial reasoning abilities are used to help solve the problem of predicting the three-dimensional structure of selected proteins (Khatib et al. 2011). Galaxy Zoo, in contrast, relies on human visual pattern recognition to detect and classify galaxies from large-scale astronomical image databases (Lintott et al. 2008).
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Acknowledgements
Paul Smart’s contribution to this work was supported by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the U.K. Ministry of Defence and was accomplished as part of the International Technology Alliance (ITA) Project under Agreement Number W911NF-06-3-0001. Some of the ideas contained in the chapter were presented by Richard Heersmink at a seminar at the Center for Human Interactivity of the University of Southern Denmark. Richard would like to thank Sune Steffensen for the invitation and the audience for helpful feedback . Richard would also like to thank John Sutton and Alexander Gillett for helpful discussion on the Internet and cognition. Robert Clowes wishes to acknowledge the support of Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia grant/BPD/70440/2010 that made possible his contribution to this paper. All authors would like to thank two anonymous reviewers who provided detailed feedback and suggestions on an earlier version of the chapter.
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Smart, P., Heersmink, R., Clowes, R.W. (2017). The Cognitive Ecology of the Internet. In: Cowley, S., Vallée-Tourangeau, F. (eds) Cognition Beyond the Brain. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49115-8_13
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