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Constructing the Grave: The Main Parts and Their Combination

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The Burial Record of Prehistoric Liangshan in Southwest China

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Abstract

Together, Chaps. 4–6 present the main analysis of the data introduced in Chap. 3 according to the model set forth in Chap. 2. The present chapter focuses on the grave construction itself, detailing measurements, construction parts, external and internal features, and raw material choices. Based on a combination of these variables, this chapter suggests distinguishing between three main grave categories (graves above ground/megalithic graves, stone-construction graves, and earth-pit graves) with several types and subtypes each. These grave types can later be correlated with other elements such as body treatment and object assemblages to infer on the overall burial ritual. In the present chapter, it already becomes clear that there is much subregional and local variation in grave construction and choice of raw material, in some cases dictated by uneven availability of flat ground and/or appropriate raw material, in other cases determined by religious or other cultural considerations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Full measurements of the grave chamber are available for 464 graves; the length is known for 610 graves, the width for 663 graves, and the depth /height for 526 graves.

  2. 2.

    As the depth measurements are notoriously unreliable due to erosion and other disturbances, similar correlations with depth/height, area, or volume are not very useful and can be omitted here.

  3. 3.

    These are the unusually wide grave Dechang Ganhai M1; the unusually long grave Xide Wuhe M4, both of them located above ground; and the particularly deep graves Yanyuan Yingpanshan M1 and M4.

  4. 4.

    All excavation reports of so-called stone-cist graves up to the year 2008 were republished in Aba and Chengdu (2009). For discussions on the graves of the Upper Min River consult, e.g., Feng (1973), He Kunyu (2009), Li and Li (1986), Luo (2005), and Xu (1998). For a reassessment of the Upper Min River stone-cist graves in the light of newly excavated material from Luhuo Prefecture, Sichuan Province, consult Miyamoto and Gao (2013) and Sichuansheng et al. (2013).

  5. 5.

    Particularly deep graves are Lizhou AM1, AM3, AM4, AM5, Ninglang Daxingzhen M3, M4, M5, M6, M9, M10, Huili Fenjiwan M14, M137, M143, Xichang Ma’anshan M1. Particularly voluminous graves are Xichang Lizhou AM1, AM2, AM4, AM5, AM7, AM8, BM4, Xichang Ma’anshan M1, Xichang Qimugou M3, Ninglang Daxingzhen M5, Huili Fenjiwan M137 and M 143. Exceptionally long graves of over 7 m include Xichang Lizhou AM1, AM3, AM7, AM8, and BM4.

  6. 6.

    Eighteen graves from Zhaojue (Zhaojue Eba Buji , Erba Keku , Jike Jijie, Pusu Bohuang, and Wazhaishan ), two from Huili (Huili Guojiabaou and Xiaoyingpan), and two from Yongsheng Duizi.

  7. 7.

    These are graves from Zhaojue Erba Keku , Wazhaishan , Pusu Bohuang, and Jike Jijie.

  8. 8.

    Yanyuan Laolongtou M7 and M9 are the only known graves whose covers are made of a combination of small and large stones, but as the graves are poorly preserved the cover might originally have consisted of a single large thin stone slab that broke at some point in time .

  9. 9.

    These graves are Yanyuan Laolongtou M7 and M9, and Xide Wadegu M4.

  10. 10.

    The first number indicates the number of excavated graves of this type, the second the unexcavated graves.

  11. 11.

    For Dechang Arong M1, M3, and M4, the excavation reports mention that the boulders were placed in a foundation ditch dug around the main grave chamber to secure the stones in place. Although the preliminary excavation reports for other graves do not mention such a ditch, the summary publication for the megalithic graves of the Anning River Valley remarks that—with the exception of Xichang Wanao M1 and M2—all of these large graves were made by first digging a trench that would fit the large boulders neatly (Sichuansheng et al. 2006: 138). As the authors of this publication consulted all of the original excavation reports and/or took part in the excavations themselves, it is reasonable to assume that constructions above ground using large boulders usually have a foundation trench.

  12. 12.

    The clear cases are Xide Lake Sihe M8, Puge Xiaoxingchang AM1 and BM4 (both igneous rock), Echang Fanjiacun M1-2 (igneous rock), Xichang Tuanbao M5 (granite), and Xide Lake Sihe M1 and M7 (igneous rock). The unclear cases are Dechang Arong M4 (i gneous rock), Puge Xiaoxingchang BM1 and Xichang Tianwangshan M10, and Xichang Hexi Gaongshe M1 and M2.

  13. 13.

    At Zhengzhou, the rammed-earth layers of walls and building foundations were 8–10 cm thick on average with a range of 2–20 cm. The pestle impressions measured mostly only 2–5 cm in diameter, in some cases up to 10 cm but never 20 cm like here (An 1993; Henan 2000). At Baodun , the layers were 8–10 cm thick on average and showed tool impressions with about 5 cm diameter as well (Chengdushi et al. 2000). For details on rammed-earth constructions in China consult Edwards and Lin 1984 as well as Shan (1981).

  14. 14.

    The soil volume of Tianwangshan M10 calculated from the volume of the tumulus if it were solid (1648.03 m3) minus the volume of the grave chamber (ca. 1 m3) would result in 836 man days (or 17 days for 50 people) if calculated with an average work load of 1.97 m3.

  15. 15.

    This kind of arrangement has been observed with eight graves at three sites: Dechang Arong M1 and M4, Miyi Wanqiu M1 and M2, Xichang Hexi Gongshe M3, M4, and M5, and Xichang Wanao M2.

  16. 16.

    Observed at Dechang Arong M3, Dechang Dashipai M5, Dechang Shaba M8, Xichang Wanao M1 and M3, Xichang Xijiao Gongshe M1.

  17. 17.

    Xichang Hexi Gongshe M1, Xide Guluqiao M1, and Xichang Tianwangshan M10.

  18. 18.

    The cover stones of these graves measure at least 1.9 × 1.2 × 0.6 m (Xichang Wanao M1) and at maximum 3.5 × 1.7 × 0.7 m (Xichang Bahe Baozi M1).

  19. 19.

    The poorly preserved examples built on a slope include Xichang Xinying M1 and Xichang Lake Sihe M1.

  20. 20.

    For 165 graves, the size of the stone-construction parts has not been reported; 123 (75 %) of them are located on level ground; 32 (19.4 %) were observed on hill slopes, but they were either poorly preserved or not properly published, so that it is impossible to be sure about the presence or absence of such a construction detail. The remaining 11 graves (Xichag Hexi Gongshe M1-M5, Xichang Lijiagou cun M1-M4, and Xichang Reshuitang M1) were built on sloped ground and reasonably well preserved including even remnants of tumuli but with no sign of a tail. The five at Hexi Gongshe were built on only slightly sloped ground that was probably not steep enough for a tail (Xichang Diqu 1978: Pl.1–2); the remaining graves were not published in detail but only listed in the Zhongguo Wenwu Dituji, which does not mention the presence of a tail even for excavated graves with known tails.

  21. 21.

    Doorways occur both with Type 1 and 2 (1.1, 2.1 and 2.2), trapezoidal installations have been reported in connection with the same types but not the same graves, and stone tiles occur with Types 1.2, 2.1, and 4.2.

  22. 22.

    For Zhaojue Qianjinshe M6, the publication does not provide details on object location, but in Puge Xiaoxingchang BM2 and BM4, the objects placed in the front and the rear chamber were essentially the same (personal ornaments made of bone , stone, and bronze).

  23. 23.

    They occur at Yanyuan Laolongtou M4, Yongsheng Duizi M59, and Huili Xiaoyingpan M4.

  24. 24.

    Due to their construction of overlapping stone slabs, graves of Type 2.4.1 naturally have a partitioned-off section at the foot and/or head, but these s paces are very small and never contain any objects; they were thus likely not intentionally created and can therefore not be addressed as compartments.

  25. 25.

    Foot compartments were reported from Yanyuan Laolongtou M4 and M6 (both stone-construction grave Type 3.1.1), and Huili Xiaoyingpan (Type 1.3.1.2). Head compartments were observed at Yongsheng Duizi M59 (Type 3.2) and Huili Xiaoyingpan M13 (Type 1.3.1.2), M20 (Type 2.3.2.1), and M21 (Type 2.3).

  26. 26.

    All graves at Laolongtou are stone-cover graves (Types 3.1.1 and 3.1.2), but only five held a wooden coffin that was in three cases held together by bronze nails. Wooden coffins were reported from M4, M6, M7, M9, and M11; of these, M4, M6, and M7 held 63, 10, and 8 nails, respectively. The coffins were all fitted neatly into the grave; they were made from several layers of wooden planks.

  27. 27.

    Graves without coffins measure 1.5–1.75 m × 0.56–0.65 m × 1.1–1.12 m; graves with coffins measure 2–2.5 m by 0.7–0.9 m, and the known cases were all over 1.6 m deep at the time of excavation, the deepest measuring 3.25 m in vertical extension (Ninglang Daxingzhen M5).

  28. 28.

    Head compartments were observed in four graves at Huili Washitian , associated with two other graves that did not have special internal features. Complete measurements are only known from grave M1, which was medium-sized but narrow (2 m × 0.3 m). Washitian M4 was severely disturbed but must have measured around 1.5–2 m in length as well.

  29. 29.

    These graves are Xichang Ma’anshan M1 (measurements: 3.67 × 2.9 × 2.02 m) and Xichang Qimugou M3 (4.98 × 3.1 × 0.6 m).

  30. 30.

    In two of these graves, thin stone slabs were placed in the pelvis region (M12 and M40), and in nine graves slabs were found under the head (M13, M78, M87, M93, M95, M108, M110, M115, and M143). In one grave, M113, a small stone slab was placed upright next to a cera mic vessel.

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    Anke Hein

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Hein, A. (2017). Constructing the Grave: The Main Parts and Their Combination. In: The Burial Record of Prehistoric Liangshan in Southwest China. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42384-5_4

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