Abstract
Wiremu Te Rangikaheke, New Zealand Governor George Grey’s source and assistant, literate in Māori but not in English, was only marginally part of the scholarly world that Grey and his fellow Victorian ethnographers inhabited. A generation later, Apirana Ngata, the first Māori university graduate, was fluent in English literary forms while retaining his Indigenous knowledge. His prize-winning poem, ‘A Scene from the Past’, reflects the manner in which pre-contact oral literary and rhetorical forms are mimicked in early written texts by Māori. Māori letters and newspapers of the period repeatedly make reference to the importance of writing and print culture. But at the same time Māori texts maintain the rhetorical and organisational structures of traditional ceremonial speech.
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- 1.
Alfred Domett, Ranolf and Amohia: A South-Sea Day-Dream (London: Smith, Elder, 1872), p. 44. (Domett 1872)
- 2.
Alfred Domett, The Diary of Alfred Domett 1872–1885, ed. E.A. Horsman (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), p. 69. (Domett 1953)
- 3.
Domett’s friend James Fitzgerald, pointing to the ‘Browningite’ aspects of Ranolf and Amohia, Alfred Domett papers, MS-Papers-1632-2, Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library of New Zealand.
- 4.
George Grey, Ko Nga Moteatea, Me Nga Hakirara o Nga Maori or Poems, Traditions and Chaunts of the Maories (Wellington: Robert Stokes, 1853). (Grey 1853)
- 5.
George Grey, Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New Zealand Race, as furnished by their Priests and Chiefs (London: John Murray, 1855). (Grey 1855)
- 6.
As early as 1852, there was a plan to collaborate with the illustrator Richard Oliver in a volume which would combine Grey’s legends and Domett’s poems. It did not progress. The publisher William Boone, who had published Grey’s Australian works, said ‘New Zealand is overdone’, Leonard Bell, Colonial Constructs: European Images of Maori 1840–1914 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1992), p. 33. (Bell 1922)
- 7.
Edmund Bohan, To Be a Hero: Sir George Grey (Auckland: Harper Collins, 1998), p. 100. (Bohan 1998)
- 8.
Bohan, To Be a Hero, p. 101.
- 9.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, pp. iii–iv.
- 10.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. vii.
- 11.
C.O.B. Davis, Maori Mementos: Being a Series of Addresses, Presented by the Native People to His Excellency Sir George Grey, KCB, FRS, Governor and High Commissioner of the Cape of Good Hope, and the Late Governor of New Zealand; with Introductory Remarks and Explanatory Notes, to Which is Added a Small Collection of Laments, etc. (Auckland: Williamson and Wilson, 1855), p. ii. (Davis 1855)
- 12.
Lachy Paterson, Colonial Discourses: Nuipepa Māori, 1855–1863 (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2006), p. 42. (Paterson 2006)
- 13.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. xi.
- 14.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, pp. xii–xiii.
- 15.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. xii.
- 16.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. xix.
- 17.
Grey, Polynesian Mythology, p. x.
- 18.
Paterson writes of the mid-century, ‘it is reasonably clear that Māori literacy rates were probably higher than for some segments of the English population at the time and that, while some areas may have had higher concentrations of literate people, there were individuals able to read and write in most Māori communities’, Colonial Discourses, p. 38.
- 19.
Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 1999), pp. 69–72. (Smith 1999)
- 20.
Tony Ballantyne, ‘What Difference Does Colonialism Make? Reassessing Print and Social Change in an Age of Global Imperialism’, Agents of Change? Print and Culture Studies after Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, eds. Sabrina Alcorn Baron, Eric N Lindquist and Eleanor F Shevlin (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), p. 345. (Ballantyne 2007)
- 21.
Ballantyne, ‘What Difference Does Colonialism Make?’, p. 350.
- 22.
Jane McRae, ‘“Ki nga pito e wha o te ao nei [To the Four Corners of This World]”: Maori Publishing and Writing for Nineteenth-century Maori-language Newspapers’, Agents of Change, p. 287.
- 23.
Jane McRae, ‘Maori Literature: A Survey’, The Oxford History of New Zealand Literature, rev. ed., ed. Terry Sturm (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 4. (McRae 1998)
- 24.
Lyndsay Head, ‘Kupu Pai, Kupu Kino: Good and Bad Words in Maori Political Writing’, Rere Atu, Taku Manu! Discovering History, Language and Politics in the Maori-Language Newspapers, eds. Jenifer Curnow, Ngapare Hopa and Jane McCrae (Auckland University Press, 2002), p. 136. (Head 2002)
- 25.
Quoted in Head, ‘Kupu Pai, Kupu Kino’, p. 134.
- 26.
One of these photographs is in the National Library collection, one in the Auckland Public Library collection. Both seem to have been taken at the same sitting, though Te Rangikaheke strikes slightly different poses in each. The second photograph is reproduced in Jenifer Curnow, ‘Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke: His Life and Work’, MA Thesis, University of Auckland, 1983, p. 38. Its location is not given. (Curnow 1983)
- 27.
See for example George Angas’s two portraits of one of Grey’s sources, Tamihana Te Rauparaha, one entitled ‘Civilised and Christianised New Zealand Chief’, the other ‘Te Rauparaha and Ko Katu’. Bell, Colonial Constructs, p. 25, and figures 9 and 10. Tamihana wrote ‘The History of Te Rauparaha’ c.1845 (GNZ MMSS 27). By the 1920s the value placed on the contrasting representations had changed. The magazine South Africa contained two photographs of King Sobhuza of Swaziland, ‘one – in which he was in traditional dress – given the caption “natural”; the other, next to it, in which he was dressed in conventional western attire, had the epithet “unnatural”’, Brian Willan, Sol Plaatje: South African Nationalist, 1876–1932 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), p. 289. (Willan 1984)
- 28.
Michael Jackson, ‘Literacy, Communication and Social Change’, Conflict and Compromise, ed. I. H. Kawharu (Wellington: A. H. and A. W. Reed, 1975), pp. 35–44. (Jackson 1975)
- 29.
D. M. Stafford, Te Arawa: A History of the Arawa People (1967) (Auckland: Reed, 2005), p. 362. (Stafford 2005)
- 30.
Curnow, ‘Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke’, p. 15.
- 31.
Stafford, Te Arawa, p. 8. The speaker was Lady Martin.
- 32.
Stafford, Te Arawa, p. 3364, quoting Grey’s secretary, George Sisson Clarke.
- 33.
Stafford, Te Arawa, p. 9.
- 34.
McRae, ‘Maori Literature: A Survey’, p. 8.
- 35.
Curnow, ‘Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke’, p. 16.
- 36.
The letters are in GNZMA 723,724 and 323.
- 37.
Curnow, ‘Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke’, p. 17.
- 38.
Curnow, ‘Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke’, p. 19.
- 39.
Alex Frame, Grey and Iwikau: A Journey into Custom [Kerei Raua Ko Iwikau Te Haerenga me Nga Tikanga] (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2002), p. 13. (Frame 2002)
- 40.
G.C. Cooper, Journal of an Expedition Overland from Auckland to Taranaki by Way of Rotorua, Taupo, and the West Coast Undertaken in the Summer of 1849–50 by His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief of New Zealand (Auckland: Williamson and Wilson, 1851), p. 128. (Cooper 1851)
- 41.
Stafford, Te Arawa, p. 362.
- 42.
Stafford, Te Arawa, p. 363.
- 43.
Curnow, ‘Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke’, p. 15.
- 44.
Donald Jackson Kerr, Amassing Treasure for All Times: Sir George Grey, Colonial Bookman and Collector (Delaware: Oak Knoll Press/Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2006), p. 79. (Kerr 2006)
- 45.
Summarised by Curnow, Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke, p.118, Grey Collection, APL, pp. 84–138.
- 46.
Margaret Orbell, ‘Two Manuscripts of Te Rangikaheke’, Te Ao Hou, 62 (March 1968): 9. (Orbell 1968)
- 47.
Orbell, ‘Two Manuscripts of Te Rangikaheke’: 9–10.
- 48.
Orbell, ‘Two Manuscripts of Te Rangikaheke’: 8–12. The dream is described in GNZMMSS 93, the letter in GNZMMSS 45.
- 49.
Robert Browning and Alfred Domett, ed. Frederick Kenyon (London: Smith, Elder, 1906), p. 81.
- 50.
Attributed to Dr Isaac Featherstone by Walter Buller, 1905. See Stafford and Williams, Maoriland: New Zealand Literature, 1872–1914, p. 289, note 47, for a discussion of this often cited phrase.
- 51.
R. Coupland Harding, ‘Unwritten Literature’, Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 25 (1892): 443. (Harding 1892)
- 52.
Mark Williams, ‘Literary Scholarship, Criticism, and Theory’, The Oxford History of New Zealand Literature, p. 697; see also Bettina Kaiser, ‘Collegiate Debating Societies in New Zealand: The Role of Discourse in an Inter-Colonial Setting, 1878–1902’, PhD Thesis, Canterbury University, 2008. (Kaiser 2008)
- 53.
George Grey, Preface, Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the New Zealand Race (Auckland: H. Brett, 1885), p. xvi. (Grey 1855)
- 54.
Arthur Adams, ‘The Brave Days To Be’, Maoriland and Other Verses (Sydney: The Bulletin, 1899), p. 24. (Adams 1899)
- 55.
Adams, ‘The Brave Days To Be’, p. 26.
- 56.
Otago Witness, 13 May 1903, p. 41.
- 57.
Ibid. McDonald retired from the museum in 1926 and lived the rest of his life in Tokaanu where he helped found Te Tuwharetoa School of Maori Arts and Culture. When he died in 1935, Dennis writes, ‘a tribute appeared in Te Waka Karaitiana, honouring his decision to live and work with the Maori people of Tokaanu, and his desire to continue learning from them was noted with approval’, Jonathan Dennis, ‘McDonald, James Ingram 1865–1935’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, http://www.dnzb.govt.nz
- 58.
Daily Southern Cross, 24 December 1867, p. 3.
- 59.
With an endowment from the local Chief Te Hapuku and grant of land under the control of the Crown at the time.
- 60.
‘Reminiscences’ by George Bertrand, in R.R. Alexander, The Story of Te Aute College (Wellington: A.H. & A.W. Reed, 1951), p. 103. (Alexander 1951)
- 61.
Quoted in John Barrington, Separate but Equal? Maori Schools and the Crown 1867–1969 (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2008), p. 146. (Barrington 2008)
- 62.
Report of the Third Conference of the Te Aute College Students’ Association (Gisborne: The Poverty Bay Herald, 1898), p. 6.
- 63.
Barrington, Separate but Equal?, p. 151.
- 64.
Barrington, Separate but Equal?, p. 152.
- 65.
Barrington, Separate but Equal?, p. 159.
- 66.
It seems likely that it is the prize-winning essay referred to in Ngata’s entry in A Short History of Canterbury College (University of New Zealand) with a Register and Graduates and Associates of the College by James Hight and Alice M.F. Candy (Christchurch: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1927), p. 204. (Hight and Candy 1927)
- 67.
See Erica Schouten, ‘“The Encyclopaedic God-Professor”: John Macmillan Brown and the Discipline of English in Colonial New Zealand’, Journal of New Zealand Literature, 23:1 (2005): 109–23. (Schouten 2005)
- 68.
John Macmillan Brown, Memoirs (Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1974), p. 75. (Brown 1974)
- 69.
John Macmillan Brown, Modern Education: Its Defects and their Remedies (Christchurch: The Lyttleton Times, 1908), p. 39 (Brown 1908).
- 70.
Macmillan Brown, Modern Education, p. 42.
- 71.
The essay appeared serialised the newspaper on 3, 12 and 19 December 1892, and was reprinted as a pamphlet: Apirama [sic] Turupu Ngata, The Past of Future of the Maori (Christchurch: ‘The Press’ Office, 1893), p. 1. (Ngata 1893)
- 72.
Ngata, The Past of Future of the Maori, p. 1.
- 73.
Ngata, The Past of Future of the Maori, p. 1.
- 74.
Ngata, The Past of Future of the Maori, p. 2.
- 75.
Macmillan Brown, Memoirs, p. 97.
- 76.
Ngata, The Past of Future of the Maori, p. 6.
- 77.
Ngata, The Past of Future of the Maori, p. 6.
- 78.
‘The Wanderer’, lines 85–96, trans. Michael Alexander, Earliest English Poems (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), pp. 72–3. (Alexander 1966)
- 79.
Beowulf, lines 2262–70, trans. Seamus Heaney (London: Faber, 1999), p. 72.
- 80.
The Rawlinson chair of Anglo-Saxon literature was established at Oxford in 1803, but Oxford and Cambridge were slower than the Scottish universities and London University to take up English literature as a part of the curriculum.
- 81.
Macmillan Brown, Modern Education, p. 42.
- 82.
Macmillan Brown, Memoirs, p. 129.
- 83.
Schouten, ‘The Encyclopaedic God-Professor’, p. 115. For a discussion of this process, see Thomas P. Miller, The Formation of College English: Rhetoric and Belles Lettres in the British Cultural Provinces (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), pp. 265–76. (Miller 1997)
- 84.
Macmillan Brown, Memoirs, p. 92.
- 85.
Rosemary Woolf, ‘The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and the Genre of Planctus’, Art and Doctrine: Essays on Medieval Literature, ed. Heather O’Donoghue (London: Hambleton, 1986), p. 166. (Woolf 1986)
- 86.
The poem won the Canterbury College Dialectic Society prize in 1892. For a discussion of the Dialectic Society, see Jane Stafford and Mark Williams, Maoriland: New Zealand Literature, 1872–1914 (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2006), p. 258. (Stafford and Williams 2006)
- 87.
Hone Heke and A.T. Ngata, Souvenir of the Maori Congress, July 1908: Scenes from the Past with Maori Versions of Popular English Songs (Wellington: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1908), p. 5 (Heke and Ngata 1908). The poem was also printed in the Auckland Star, 25th October 1894 and in R. A. Loughnan, Royalty in New Zealand: The Visit of their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess of Cornwell and York to New Zealand, 10th–27th June 1901: A Descriptive Narrative (Wellington: Government Printing Office, 1902), pp. 102–4. (Loughnan 1902)
- 88.
Ngata, ‘A Scene from the Past’, Souvenir of the Maori Congress, p. 5.
- 89.
Shef Rogers, ‘Crusoe among the Maori: Translation and Colonial Acculturation in Victorian New Zealand’, Book History 1, 1(1998): 183. (Rogers 1998)
- 90.
Timoti Karetu, ‘Maori Print Culture: The Newspapers’, Rere Atu, Taku Manu! Discovering History, Language and Politics in the Maori-Language Newspapers, eds. Jenifer Curnow, Ngapare Hopa and Jane McCrae (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2002), p. 1. (Karetu 2002)
- 91.
Lyndsay Head, ‘Kupu Pai, Kupu Kino: Good and Bad Words in Maori Political Writing’, Rere Atu, Taku Manu!, p. 135.
- 92.
Jane McRae, ‘“Ki nga pito e wha o te ao nei” (To the four corners of this world)’: Maori publishing and writing for nineteenth-century Maori-language newspapers’, Agents of Change? Print and Culture Studies after Elizabeth L. Eisenstein, eds. Sabrina Alcorn Baron, Eric N Lindquist and Eleanor F Shevlin (Amherst and Boston: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), p. 297. (McRae 2007)
- 93.
Apirana T. Ngata, ‘A Scene from the Past’, Auckland Star, 25 October 1894, p. 2. (Ngata 1984)
- 94.
Ibid.
- 95.
Judith Binney, Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995), p. 11 (Binney 1995). Binney is specifically referring to Te Kooti, but Ngata was associated with similar auguries. See Ranginui Walker, He Tipua: The Life and Times of Sir Apirana Ngata (Auckland: Penguin, 2001), pp. 54–5. (Walker 2001)
- 96.
Binney, Redemption Songs, p. 25.
- 97.
See James Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, the British, and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1989), pp. 260–7 (Belich 1989), and Steven Oliver, ‘Wahawaha, Rapata, ?-1897’, Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, http://www.dnzb.govt.nz/ Belich writes ‘The killings were primarily carried out by Ngati Porou, but the colonists must bear a large share of responsibility. Ropata [sic] was praised for the killings and, though this was generally glossed over, the Arawa – colonial regulars – also took part in them’, p. 266.
- 98.
Binney, Redemption Songs, p. 146.
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Stafford, J. (2016). ‘Pressed Down by the Great Words of Others’: Wiremu Maihi Te Rangikaheke and Apirana Ngata. In: Colonial Literature and the Native Author. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38767-3_6
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