Abstract
Johnson, daughter of a Mohawk chief and English mother, fashions a form of poetic authority as she claims to speak from one side of her heritage to the other, representing herself as a practised participant of the world of oral history and the world of the professional writer of the public poem, magazine article and story. Her stage performances, dressed in what she offered as authentic Mohawk dress, critiqued Indigenous dispossession, although these political positions were often overshadowed by the dramatic effect of her on-stage presence. Legends of Vancouver is presented as private knowledge revealed with permission but owes as much to Scott, Longfellow and Tennyson. The particularities of Indigenous knowledge are blunted as they are made acceptable to the wider audiences of modern Canada.
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Notes
- 1.
Washington Post, 10 October 1884, p. 1.
- 2.
William L. Stone, The Life and Times of Red Jacket, or Sa-Go-Ye-Wat-Ha; being a Sequel to the History of the Six Nations (New York and London: Wiley and Putnam, 1841), pp. 391–4 (Stone 1841). The colonel is referred to variously as ‘McKenney’ or ‘McKinney’. See introduction, p. 4.
- 3.
Correspondence between Parker and Bryant appeared in the Buffalo Commercial Advertiser and was reprinted in the New York Times, 1 July 1884, p. 2.
- 4.
Ibid.
- 5.
New York Times, 23 March 1884, p. 7.
- 6.
Washington Post, 10 October 1884, p. 1.
- 7.
Transactions of the Buffalo Historical Society, vol III, Appendix no. 20 (1885).
- 8.
E. Pauline Johnson, Tekahionwake, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, eds. Carole Gerson and Veronica Strong-Boag (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2002), p. 11. (Johnson 2002)
- 9.
Red Jacket’s single recorded characteristic was his eloquence – he had an ambiguous record as soldier, but was successful as a negotiator on behalf of the Seneca people in a delegation in Philadelphia in 1792, and was given a medal by George Washington.
- 10.
The Globe, 8 March 1913, p. 1.
- 11.
The Globe, 25 September 1893.
- 12.
The Globe, 22 November 1894.
- 13.
The Globe, 3 June 1893.
- 14.
This article groups her with other women writers: ‘Miss Machar (Fidelis), Mrs Harrison (Seranus), Mrs Curzon’, The Globe, 6 November 1897, p. 4.
- 15.
She is associated here with other poets: Ethel Wetherald, Jean Blewett, Helen Merrill, Mrs Machar, Miss Elizabeth Roberts McDonald and Evelyn Durand, The Globe, 10 December 1904, p. 9.
- 16.
The Globe, 3 March 1898, p. 6.
- 17.
The Globe, 10 December 1904. Johnson appears alongside Lampman, Carman, Roberts, Jean Blewett, Edward Dewart, William Drummond and Arthur Stringer.
- 18.
Advertisement for Flint and Feather in The Bookman, January 1913, reproduced in Linda Quirk, ‘Skyward Floating Feather: A Publishing History of E Pauline Johnson’s Flint and Feather’, Papers of the Bibliographical Society of Canada 44: 1 (2006):75.(Quirk 2006)
- 19.
The Globe, 18 October 1893, p. 8.
- 20.
The Globe, 15 April 1903, p. 14.
- 21.
The Globe, 18 October 1893, p. 8.
- 22.
Marta Braun and Charlie Keil, ‘Sounding Canadian: Early Sound Practices and Nationalism in Toronto-based Exhibition’, The Sounds of Early Cinema, eds. Richard Abel and Rick Altman (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2001), pp. 201–3. (Braun and Keil 2001)
- 23.
The Globe, 22 September 1893, p. 8.
- 24.
The Mail and Empire, 30 May 1902.
- 25.
Audiences praised ‘the illusion he gives of an easy amiable interchange between the two cultures, French- and English-speaking’, Roy Daniels, ‘Minor Poets 1880–1920’, Literary History of Canada: Canadian Literature in English, second edition, vol 1, ed. Cark F Klinck (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977), p. 438. (Daniels 1977)
- 26.
William Henry Drummond, ‘De Habitant’, The Habitant and Other French-Canadian Poems (New York: G P Putnam’s Sons, 1897), p. 6. (Drummond 1897)
- 27.
Daily Examiner, 20 May 1903, n.p., E Pauline Johnson Fonds, Box 4, File 8, William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster University Library.
- 28.
Flyer from Johnson’s 1900-1 tour of the Maritimes, reproduced in Sheila M.F. Johnson, Buckskin and Broadcloth: A Celebration of E. Pauline Johnson-Tekahionwake 1861–1913 (Toronto: Natural Heritage Books, 1997), p. 157. (Johnson 1997)
- 29.
Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 306.
- 30.
Walter McRaye is at pains to distinguish between the status of ‘half-breed’, that is, having an Indian mother, and Johnson who with an Indian father ‘was Indian by race and by law’, Pauline Johnson and Her Friends (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1947), p. x. (McRaye 1947)
- 31.
Charlotte Gray, Flint and Feather: The Life and Times of E. Pauline Johnson, Tekahionwake (Toronto: Harper Collins, 2002), pp. 156 ff. (Gray 2002)
- 32.
See Jane Stafford and Mark Williams, ‘Indian Mysteries and Comic Stunts: The Royal Tour and the Theatre of Empire’, Journal of Commonwealth Literature, 44: 2 (June 2009): 87–105, for a discussion of this visit. (Stafford and Williams 2009)
- 33.
Carole Gerson and Veronica Strong-Boag, Paddling Her Own Canoe: the Times and Texts of E. Pauline Johnson, Tekahionwake (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2000), p. 110 (Gerson and Strong-Boag 2000); Archives of Ontario, E. Johnson, ‘Chiefswood’.
- 34.
Longfellow, The Song of Hiawatha, XI, ‘The Wedding Feast’ (London: Harrap, 1911), p. 108. (Longfellow 1911)
- 35.
Ibid., p. 110.
- 36.
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, ‘Alhalla, or the Lord of Talladega: A Tale of the Creek War’, Alhalla, or the Lord of Talladega (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1843), p. 81, lines 133–140. (Schoolcraft 1843)
- 37.
‘A Strong Race Opinion: on the Indian Girl in Modern Fiction’, Sunday Globe, 22 May, 1892, p. 1.
- 38.
Henry Rowe Schoolcraft (1793–1864), ethnographer and poet; Francis Parkman (1823–93), historian and travel writer; George Catlin (1796–1872), painter and travel writer.
- 39.
Cathy Rex, ‘Survivance and Fluidity: George Copway’s The Life, History, and Travels of Kah-Ge-ga-gah-bowh’, Studies in American Indian Literatures, 18: 2 (2006): 21. See introduction, p. 5. (Rex 2006)
- 40.
See Mary Elizabeth Leighton, ‘Performing Pauline Johnson: Representations of “the Indian Poetess” in the Periodical Press, 1892–95’, Essays on Canadian Writing 65 (Fall 1998): 149. (Leighton 1998)
- 41.
The Globe, 1 November 1893, p. 3.
- 42.
Nellie L. McClung, The Stream Runs Fast: My Own Story (Toronto: Thomas Allen, 1945), p. 35. (McClung 1945)
- 43.
Walter McRaye, Town Hall Tonight, intro. Lorne Pierce (Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1929?), p. 44. (McRaye 1929?)
- 44.
Leighton, ‘Performing Pauline Johnson’: 159.
- 45.
‘Outdoor Pastimes for Women’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, pp. 176–7.
- 46.
Collected Poems and Selected Prose, note, p. 292.
- 47.
Collected Poems and Selected Prose, note, p. 306.
- 48.
Linda M. Marra, Unarrested Archives: Case Studies in Twentieth-Century Canadian Women’s Authorship (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), p. 33. (Marra 2014)
- 49.
Marra, Unarrested Archives, p. 34.
- 50.
‘A Cry from an Indian Wife’, Johnson, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 14–15; first published in The Week, 18 June 1885; White Wampum version revised.
- 51.
Earlier versions were more stirring, and more accusatory of the Canadian public, possibly reflecting their performance while the Rebellion was still in progress: Verse
Verse O! coward self – I hesitate no more. Go forth – and win the glories of the war. O! heart o’erfraught – O! nation lying low – God, and fair Canada have willed it so. Johnson, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 292.
- 52.
Gerson and Strong-Boag, Paddling Her Own Canoe, p. 137.
- 53.
‘The Cattle Thief’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, pp. 97–9; first published in The Week, 7 December 1894, p. 34.
- 54.
‘The Death Cry’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 32.
- 55.
‘As Red Men Die’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 68.
- 56.
‘The Pilot of the Plains’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 80.
- 57.
‘The Indian Corn Planter’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, pp. 124–5.
- 58.
‘The Corn Husker’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 121.
- 59.
‘Brantford Briefs’, The Globe, 7 December 1894, p. 8.
- 60.
The Democrat, Grand Rapids Michigan, 10 November 1896.
- 61.
George Copway, The Life, History, and Travels of Kah-Ge-Ga-Gah-Bowh (George Copway) a Young Indian Chief of the Ojebwa Nation, a Convert to the Christian Faith and a Missionary to his People for Twelve Years; with a Sketch of the Present State of the Ojebwa Nation in Regard to Christianity and Their Future Prospects; also an Appeal; with all the Names of the Chiefs now Living who have been Christianized, and the Missionaries Now Laboring Among Them; Written by Himself (Albany: Weed and Parsons, 1847), p. 16. (Copway 1847)
- 62.
‘Royal Iroquois Chief’, Clipping from Johnson’s collection, n.p., n.d., [Toronto newspaper?], E Pauline Johnson Fonds, Box 4, File 15, William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster University Library.
- 63.
Clipping from Johnson’s collection, n.p., n.d., E. Pauline Johnson Fonds, Box 4, File 19, William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections, McMaster University Library.
- 64.
William Pember Reeves, ‘The Passing of the Forest’, New Zealand, and Other Poems (London: Grant Richards, 1898), pp. 7–8. (Reeves 1898)
- 65.
‘Bass Lake (Muskoka)’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, pp. 46–7; first published in Saturday Night, 2 August 1889, p. 6.
- 66.
‘Star Lake (Muskoka)’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, pp. 73–4. Gerson and Strong-Boag use a version from The Young Canadian, 22 April 1891, p. 198 as their copy text. It is not clear whether this was where the poem was first published.
- 67.
Daniel Francis, National Dreams: Myth, Memory, and Canadian History (Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press, 2010), p. 129. (Francis 2010)
- 68.
‘Outdoor Pastimes for Women’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 175.
- 69.
Misao Dean, Inheriting a Canoe Paddle: The Canoe in Discourses of English-Canadian Nationalism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), p. 39. (Dean 2013)
- 70.
Bruce Erikson, Canoe Nation: Nature, Race, and the Making of a Canadian Icon (Vancouver: U.B.C. Press, 2013), p. xiii. (Erikson 2013).
- 71.
Dean, Inheriting a Canoe Paddle, p. 49.
- 72.
For the experience of other settler cultures in this regard, see Kirstie Ross, Going Bush: New Zealanders and Nature in the Twentieth Century (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2008) (Ross 2008) and Libby Robin, How a Continent Created a Nation (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2007). (Robin 2007)
- 73.
Marcus Clarke, Preface, Adam Lindsay Gordon, Sea Spray and Smoke Drift (Melbourne: Clarson, Massina and Co, 1876), p. vi. (Clarke 1876)
- 74.
‘The Song My Paddle Sings’, Collected Poems and Selected Prose, p. 81; first published in Saturday Night, 27 February 1892, p. 7.
- 75.
Brant Historical Society no. 563, Brant County Museum and Archives.
- 76.
Thomas O’Hagan, ‘Some Canadian Women Writers’, The Week, 5 September 1896, p. 1053.
- 77.
Several of the stories were published in both journals, and republished after the appearance of The Legends of Vancouver. See Gerson and Strong-Boag, Paddling Her Own Canoe, pp. 230–32 for a list of publication details.
- 78.
E. Pauline Johnson, Legends of Vancouver (1911) (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1997), p. vii. (Johnson 1997)
- 79.
Ibid.
- 80.
Their shared identity is to a great extent manufactured by Johnson. She and Capilano were in fact from different groupings, and she employs here the imperial practice of conflating and eliding difference between colonised groups. Elleke Boehmer, in Empire, the National, and the Postcolonial 1890–1920 (Oxford, 2002), p. 6, talks of the way in which at this time ‘the entire imperial framework becomes… at once decentred and multiply-centred, a network, one might say, of interrelating margins’ but this must be set against the way in which the dominant discourse of empire was, inevitably, adopted by colonised writers. (Boehmer 2002)
- 81.
Johnson, ‘The Two Sisters’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 2.
- 82.
Jay Arthur, ‘Natural Beauty, Man-Made’, Words for Country: Landscape and Language in Australia, eds. Tim Bonyhady and Tom Griffiths, Sydney: University of NSW Press, 2002, pp. 190–205. (Arthur 2002)
- 83.
Johnson, ‘The Two Sisters’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 2.
- 84.
Johnson, ‘Deer Lake’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 122.
- 85.
Johnson, ‘Deadman’s Island’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 96. Johnson renames Coal Harbour called so because of its proximity to a railway coal-yard, the Lost Lagoon: ‘I always resented that jarring, unattractive name…This was just to please my own fancy’, Gray, Flint and Feather, p. 353.
- 86.
Johnson, ‘The Grey Archway’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 83.
- 87.
Catherine Parr Traill, The Backwoods of Canada (1836) (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1989), p. 128. (Traill 1989). Daniel Coleman points out that the young George Copway who was at that time at school nearby could have supplied Traill with an abundance of ‘historical associations’ and ‘legendary tales’. See ‘Grappling with Respect: Copway and Traill in a Conversation that Never Took Place’, English Studies in Canada 39: 2–3 (June–September 2013): 63–88.
- 88.
Alexander Bathgate, ‘Faerie’, Far South Fancies (London: Griffith, Farran, Okenden, and Welsh, 1890), p. 99. (Bathgate 1890)
- 89.
Johnson, ‘The Recluse’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 17.
- 90.
Johnson, ‘The Lure in Stanley Park’, Legends of Vancouver, p.113.
- 91.
See Margo Lukens, ‘“A Being of a New World”: the Ambiguity of Mixed Blood in Pauline Johnson’s “My Mother”’, MELUS 27: 3 (Fall 2002): 43–58 for a discussion of Johnson’s own writings on her mixed race background. (Lukens 2002)
- 92.
Johnson, ‘The Two Sisters’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 2.
- 93.
Johnson, ‘The Grey Archway’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 84.
- 94.
Johnson, ‘The Grey Archway’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 84. In fact, Johnson knew very little of the Chinook – or her own language, Mohawk.
- 95.
In ‘The Legend of the “Salt-Chuck Oluk”’, for example, he assures Johnson ‘If you care to go there one day I will show you the hollow in one great stone where that head lay’, Johnson, ‘The Legend of the “Salt-Chuck Oluk”’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 53.
- 96.
Johnson, ‘The Grey Archway’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 91.
- 97.
Johnson, ‘The Lost Island’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 59.
- 98.
Johnson, ‘The Lost Island’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 60
- 99.
Johnson, ‘The Recluse’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 18.
- 100.
Lee Schweninger discusses the use of the term ‘terminal creeds’ in the writing of Gerald Vizenor to describe the deployment of this motif in contemporary Native American literature, ‘Radicalism and Liberation in Native American Literature’, Post-Colonial Literatures: Expanding the Canon, ed. Deborah L Madsen (London: Pluto, 1999), pp. 206–7. (Vizenor 1999)
- 101.
Johnson, ‘The Recluse’, Legends of Vancouver, pp. 19–20.
- 102.
Johnson, ‘The Deep Waters’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 47.
- 103.
Johnson, ‘The Deep Waters’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 43.
- 104.
Johnson, ‘The Lost Salmon Run’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 32. Johnson addresses the narrator as ‘Dear old klootchman!’
- 105.
Johnson, ‘The Lost Salmon Run’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 36.
- 106.
Johnson, ‘The Two Sisters’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 2. For a discussion of the poetic expression of oral Indigenous literature see Jane Stafford, ‘Immeasurable Abysses and Living Books: Oral Literature and Victorian Poetics in Alfred Domett’s Ranolf and Amohia’, Bulletin of the Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand, Special Issue 28: 1,2 (2004), pp. 161–71. (Stafford 2004) Okereke discusses the ways in which performance values might be recorded in an oral text, Augustine Okereke, ‘The Performance and the Text: Parameters for Understanding Oral Literary Performance’, Across the Lines: Intertexuality and Transcultural Communication in the New Literatures in English, ed. Wolfgang Kloss, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998, pp. 39–50. (Okereke 1998)
- 107.
In the introduction to Performance and Cultural Politics Context (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 1–2, Elin Diamond discusses the relation between the immediate context and the historic and on-going cultural contribution that such performances consist of. He quotes James Clifford (Writing Culture: the Poetics and Politics of Ethnography [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986], p. 19): ‘Twentieth-century identities no longer presuppose continuous cultures or traditions. Everywhere individuals and groups improvise local performances from (re)collected pasts, drawing on foreign media, symbols, languages…culture is contested, temporal, and emergent’. (Clifford 1986)
- 108.
Johnson, ‘The Sea Serpent’, Legends of Vancouver, pp. 51–2.
- 109.
Johnson, ‘The Recluse’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 27.
- 110.
Johnson, ‘The Lost Salmon Run’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 39.
- 111.
Johnson, ‘The Sea Serpent’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 49.
- 112.
Johnson, ‘The Grey Archway’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 86.
- 113.
Johnson, ‘A Squamish Legend of Napoleon’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 110.
- 114.
Johnson, ‘The Grey Archway’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 86.
- 115.
Johnson, ‘The Sea Serpent’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 51.
- 116.
Johnson, ‘The Sea Serpent’, Legends of Vancouver, p. 56.
- 117.
George W. Lyon, ‘Pauline Johnson: A Reconsideration’, Studies in Canadian Literature 15, no. 2 (1990), p. 136. (Lyon 1990)
- 118.
Johnson, ‘The Sea Serpent’, Legends of Vancouver, p 57.
- 119.
See a discussion of early reservations by Johnson’s contemporaries, Gerson and Strong-Boag, Paddling Her Own Canoe, p. 176.
- 120.
Gray, Flint and Feather, p. 53.
- 121.
‘Current News of Interest to Mothers’, Mothers’ Magazine, December 1906, p. 51. See Gerson and Strong-Boag, Paddling Her Own Canoe, p. 170.
- 122.
‘The Great Deep Water: a Legend of “The Flood”’, a Mothers’ Magazine early version of ‘The Deep Waters’. See Gerson and Strong-Boag, Paddling Her Own Canoe, p. 173 and note 85.
- 123.
Johnson, ‘The Lure in Stanley Park’, Legends of Vancouver, p 119.
- 124.
Johnson, ‘The Lure in Stanley Park’, Legends of Vancouver, p 119.
- 125.
Deena Rymhs describes Johnson’s writing as ‘deal[ing] with Native cultures and issues, curiously yoked with western, European literary forms’, ‘But the Shadow of her Story: Narrative Unsettlement, Self-inscription and Translation in Pauline Johnson’s Legends of Vancouver’, Studies in American Indian Literatures 13.4 (Winter 2001), p. 52 (Rymhs 2001). But there is nothing curious about the incorporation of ethnological material into Victorian colonial literature. Anne Collett, discussing the poetry, usefully points to Johnson’s use of the literary ballad, a form which traditionally transgresses boundaries, ‘Pauline Tekahionwake Johnson: Her Choice of Form’, Kunapipi 19:1 (1997), p. 63. (Collett 1997)
- 126.
Isabel Ecclestone Mackay, ‘Pauline Johnson: A Reminiscence’, Canadian Magazine 41 (1913), p. 274. (Mackay 1913)
- 127.
See Diana Brydon’s critique of critics such as Frederic Jameson who assume ‘a first world criticism respectful of a third world authenticity that it is believed his own world has lost’, ‘The White Inuit Speaks’, Past the Last Post: Theorizing Post-Colonialism and Post-Modernism, eds. Ian Adam and Helen Tiffin (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1991), p. 195 (Brydon 1991). Katja Sarkowsky warns of a tendency in postcolonial criticism of ‘a dangerous reduction to a dualistic or monolithic understanding as divided exclusively along ethno-cultural and political lines’, ‘Writing (and) Art – Native American/First Nations’ Art and Literature: Beyond Resistance and Reconciliation’, Resistance and Reconciliation: Writing in the Commonwealth, eds. Bruce Bennett, Susan Cowan, Jacqueline Lo, Satendra Nandan and Jen Webb (Canberra: ACLALS, 2003), p. 91. (Sarkowsky 2003)
- 128.
Mackay, ‘Pauline Johnson: A Reminiscence’, pp. 273–4.
- 129.
Franz Fanon, ‘Concerning Violence’, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), pp. 54–5. (Franz 1961)
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Stafford, J. (2016). Culture’s Artificial Note: E. Pauline Johnson, Tekahionwake, and her Audiences. In: Colonial Literature and the Native Author. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38767-3_5
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Print ISBN: 978-3-319-38766-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-38767-3
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)