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The Pluralization of the Religious Field in Taiwan and Its Impact on China

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Taiwan's Impact on China

Part of the book series: The Nottingham China Policy Institute Series ((NCP))

Abstract

This chapter looks into exchanges between Chinese and Taiwanese scholars who specialize in religious studies and assesses the extent to which such interactions have had an effect on how Chinese officials approach religious affairs. It argues that the Chinese leadership sees the advantages of Taiwanese authorities’ prudent management of religious affairs for stable governance, but some fundamental differences in both polities make it difficult to achieve a wholesale adoption of Taiwan’s approach. Starting with an overview of the changes in relations between the political and the religious field in Taiwan, it then looks at the increased cross-Strait exchanges on religions, and underlines what Chinese officials have found useful in these interactions. Despite claims that a shared culture can overcome political disagreements and institutional differences, the focus on regime maintenance makes China resistant to adopt Taiwan’s approach to religion. As a result, China retrieves selectively from Taiwan what reinforces the existing political structure.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Such a comparison would require looking into Taiwan under martial law, under a one-party state regime. See Gilley, Diamond, and Chen (2008) for a discussion of such comparison.

  2. 2.

    While Taiwan recognizes and applies the principle of the rule of law (法治), China implements an approach of rule by law (法制).

  3. 3.

    While there may be many qualifiers for Taiwan’s democracy and China’s authoritarian regime, the fundamental dichotomy between democracy for the former and authoritarianism for the latter remains valid.

  4. 4.

    Taiwan has a multi-party system, while China has, in theory, a one-party dominant party system if one counts the eight satellite parties. In fact, China works as a party-state.

  5. 5.

    Laliberté, “Regulation of Religious Affairs,” 53–84.

  6. 6.

    Hsiao and Schak, “Les organisations bouddhistes socialement.”

  7. 7.

    Kuo, Religion Democracy in Taiwan; Chang, “Eastern Religions and Attitude,” 555–83; Madsen, Democracy’s Dharma. I am aware that this is written in a global historical context in which religious actors are sometimes responsible for a narrowing of civil society rather than its expansion, and their contribution to democratization can be ambiguous. Keeping that caveat in mind, I maintain that in Taiwan the influence has been globally positive.

  8. 8.

    Because of the pervasive uncertainties of politics within China and in cross-Strait relations, I have decided to keep the names of the officials involved anonymous.

  9. 9.

    Stepan, “Religion, Democracy Twin Toleration,” 37–57.

  10. 10.

    Ho, Taiwan Sheng Jingwu Dang’an.

  11. 11.

    Tien, Great Transition.

  12. 12.

    Ch’iu, Zongjiaofa Yanjiu.

  13. 13.

    “Religion of Reason.”

  14. 14.

    “Heavenly Virtue.”

  15. 15.

    “Cult of the Yellow Emperor.”

  16. 16.

    Much has been written about the Christian beliefs of Presidents Sun Yat-sen, Chiang Kai-shek, and Lee Teng-hui as well as DPP leader Peng Ming-min, but much less on the Buddhist beliefs of Justice Ministers Chen Lu-an and Wang Chin-feng or former KMT Chairman Wu Po-hsiung.

  17. 17.

    NZB, Zongjiao Faling Huibian; NZB, Shehui Jiaohuapian; NZB, Shehui Fuhu Pian.

  18. 18.

    Ahern, “Thai Ti Kong Festival,” 397–426; Katz, “Identity Politics,” 157–80.

  19. 19.

    Rubinstein, Protestant Community on Taiwan.

  20. 20.

    They were the five recognized in the PRC plus Lijiao, Tiandejiao, and Xuanyuanjiao.

  21. 21.

    Laliberté, “Regulation of Religious Affairs,” 53–84.

  22. 22.

    Tien, Great Transition.

  23. 23.

    The Tzu Chi Foundation and the Foguangshan monastic order’s affiliate, the Buddha Light International Association, each claim several millions adherents; Protestants of all denomination number less than 300,000, and Catholics even less.

  24. 24.

    Jordon and Overmyer, The Flying Phoenix.

  25. 25.

    Song sold at a very high price photographs of himself surrounded by his ‘aura,’ which turned out to be simple image manipulations in dark room, before Photoshop began to be widely used.

  26. 26.

    At about the same time as the Song Qili affairs, a Buddhist summer camp generated lots of controversy because a great number of participants expressed the wish to take the precepts, generating accusation of brain-washing against the abbot of the temple involved.

  27. 27.

    Song, Zongjiao yu Shehui.

  28. 28.

    Duara, “Pan-Asianism,” 99–130.

  29. 29.

    Hsiao and Schak, “Les organisations bouddhistes socialement.”

  30. 30.

    Chang, Taiwan diqu shehui bianqian.

  31. 31.

    Zheng, Taiwan minjian zongjiaolun ji; Zheng, Zongjiao shenhua wushu yishi. I have only indicated references to texts at both ends of Zheng’s extraordinary output which used to be more than a book a year between 1984 and 2006.

  32. 32.

    Katz, “Identity Politics,” 157–180. I consider Paul Katz as a Taiwanese scholar because his employer is Academia Sinica.

  33. 33.

    Hsiao and Schak, “Les organisations bouddhistes socialement”; Ch’iu, Taiwan Zongjiao Bianqian; Ch’iu, Zongjiaofa Yanjiu.

  34. 34.

    NZB, Zongjiao Faling Huibian; NZB, Shehui Jiaohuapian; NZB, Shehui Fuhu Pian. It is important to note that the government welcomed the offer of religious institutions such as Christian churches and Buddhist associations to provide social services and sought some coordination, but did not impose that on them nor did it impose such activities as a condition to justify their existence.

  35. 35.

    This acceptance has been welcomed by vulnerable populations, such as the aboriginal people, for a long time. The history of Christian missions in China and Taiwan are very different from each other, hence their different historical legacies.

  36. 36.

    Huang, Charisma and Compassion.

  37. 37.

    Laliberté, “Zongjiao Cishan Zaihan Chongjian,” 193–220.

  38. 38.

    Kuo, Religion Democracy in Taiwan; Laliberté, “Buddhism for Human Realm,” 55–82; Madsen, Democracy’s Dharma.

  39. 39.

    Lin, Taiwan de Zhongjiao Chongtu.

  40. 40.

    Rubinstein, Protestant Community on Taiwan.

  41. 41.

    The repression against some of the leaders of the PCT was harsh indeed, but the possibility that two members of the Church could compete for the first free Presidential election in 1996 demonstrates eloquently how much Taiwan had changed.

  42. 42.

    This became clear in the 1996 presidential election, when the two leading candidates for the KMT and the DPP, Lee Teng-hui and Peng Ming-min, were both members of the Presbyterian Church.

  43. 43.

    Laliberté, Politics of Buddhist Organizations; Chandler, Establishing Pure Land; Huang, Charisma and Compassion.

  44. 44.

    Relations between the two sides soured following the mishandling by local authorities in Zhejiang of the fallout to a hijacking in the Qiandao lake that led to the death of 23 Taiwanese tourists. Relations deteriorated further from July 1995 to March 1996, when China conducted missile tests in the Taiwan Strait to intimidate Taiwanese voters in the run-up to the Presidential election.

  45. 45.

    Adherents of Yiguandao can go to China even if their religion is not recognized, like adherents of other religions such as Judaism, Mormons, etc. They can even worship in venues designated for them especially, as “aliens.”

  46. 46.

    Brown and Cheng, “Religious Relations across Taiwan,” 60–81.

  47. 47.

    There is a bureau for religious affairs within the Ministry of Interior’s Department of Civil Affairs but it is a small office relative to China’s SARA.

  48. 48.

    This is not a universal rule, and it is more likely to apply when scholars are travelling as part of a team within exchanges that have a quasi-official dimension.

  49. 49.

    Kuan, “Religion Politics in China,” 163–8.

  50. 50.

    This policy was not implemented strictly, as the discussion below on Taoism suggests.

  51. 51.

    Kuan, “Religion Politics in China,” 169 ff.

  52. 52.

    Brown and Cheng, “Religious Relations Across Taiwan,” 68.

  53. 53.

    The relaxing on religious issues happened before, but the repercussions on cross-Strait relations did not materialize.

  54. 54.

    In 1982, the Chinese government had appealed to the Hong Kong Branch of World Vision, another non-Chinese NGO affiliated to a religion. See CDB, “World Version.”

  55. 55.

    Tzu Chi’s internal documentation show that Wang met Wang Zhaoguo, newly nominated head of the CCP United Front Department, and on a separate occasion Tang Shu-bei, Vice-Chair of Taiwan’s Strait Exchange Foundation.

  56. 56.

    Huang, Charisma and Compassion.

  57. 57.

    And I should add, despite the sudden hardening of policies on religious organizations in general precipitated by the campaign against Falungong and other qigong associations after 1999.

  58. 58.

    Laliberté, “Taiwanese Buddhist Association,” 81–105.

  59. 59.

    The nuns I had interviewed in Hualien in 2004 were very keen on respecting this policy, thinking about the merit of that approach in the long run.

  60. 60.

    DC, “Taiwan Ciji.”

  61. 61.

    Kang, “Confucianism and Culture Renaissance,” 66–71.

  62. 62.

    Kang, “Confucianism and Culture Renaissance,” 76

  63. 63.

    The lack of reliable data on the number of Buddhists in China prevents us from affirming categorically whether the organization of these fora by organizations close to the CCP reflects an official response to an increased interest in Buddhism in China, or whether it is merely another case of the united front strategy of reaching out to Taiwanese and Chinese overseas.

  64. 64.

    TAO, “World Intangible Heritage.”

  65. 65.

    Its director is Wang Zuo’an.

  66. 66.

    Pei, Xie and Ding, “Guoji daojiao luntan” and “ITF”.

  67. 67.

    Taiwanwang, “Futai jiaoliu.”

  68. 68.

    Yutaishichuang, “Haixia liang’an.”

  69. 69.

    See Fenghuang, “Guozongju zhanglebing” and Fojiaonet,”Sichuan zongjiaoju.”

  70. 70.

    Yi, “Fengyu Jiancheng Taiwan Xing,” 38–45.

  71. 71.

    EDA, “L’Eglise catholique de Taiwan.”

  72. 72.

    SARA, “Zhanglebing futai jiaoliu.”

  73. 73.

    The Bureau for religion within the Ministry of Interior’s Department for Civil Affairs, mentioned before, has diminished in importance since the end of Martial Law, while the reverse happened to SARA, which was before a lower-level Bureau for Religious Affairs.

  74. 74.

    The author has been a participant at three of these events, convened in Wuxi, Beijing, and Hong Kong.

  75. 75.

    This is, of course, a double-edged sword, as knowledge on religion can contribute to its ‘securitization,’ as is demonstrated with the conflation seen in the association between Tibetan Buddhism or Islam with threats such as ‘separatism,’ ‘extremism,’ and ‘terrorism’ in some commentaries about national and international affairs.

  76. 76.

    Gao, “On Rule of Law,” 53–6.

  77. 77.

    This does not mean that politicians do not care about religion. During electoral campaigns Taiwanese candidates make sure they are seen with religious leaders. But it is not an official policy and neither the KMT nor the DPP have in their electoral campaigns a program to guide religious institutions.

  78. 78.

    Brown and Cheng, “Religious Relations across Taiwan,” 60.

  79. 79.

    Tong, “New Religious Policy,” 859–87.

  80. 80.

    Chau, Miraculous Response.

  81. 81.

    Weller, “Increasing Religious Diversity,” 135–44.

  82. 82.

    The statement was reiterated on numerous occasions in 2011 and 2013 by Zhu Weiqun, executive vice-minister of the United Front Work Department in the CCP Central Committee (see: Ji, “CPC’s Stance”).

  83. 83.

    Davis, Ruling Resources and Religion.

  84. 84.

    The Constitution emphasizes also the right not to believe, and limits the right to believe by forbidding proselytizing.

  85. 85.

    Kuan, “Religion Politics in China,” 171–3.

  86. 86.

    Kang, “Confucianism and culture renaissance,” 66–71.

  87. 87.

    Sun, “Chinese Buddhist Ecology,” 495–510.

  88. 88.

    Ji, “Secularization as Religious Restructuring,” 233–60.

  89. 89.

    That is, the category Protestantism in Taiwan welcomes a variety of denominations. In China, all churches had to dissolve into a patriotic association.

  90. 90.

    ACMRC, Atlas of Religions.

  91. 91.

    This under-reporting may have a wide variety of causes: governments that lack the human resources to investigate, ability of religious associations to escape scrutiny, and in some area, simply the concatenation of more of a century of destructions since the Taiping rebellion.

  92. 92.

    Chandler, Establishing Pure Land.

  93. 93.

    Although the rebuke by Wei Jue led to a strong, indignant response from the media.

  94. 94.

    Ownby, Falungong; Palmer, La fièvre du qigong; Tong, Revenge of Forbidden City.

  95. 95.

    Falungong is not recognized legally in Taiwan because the adherents of this organisation did not ask for this recognition and Taiwan authorities do not require such registration.

  96. 96.

    Billioud, “Yiguandao,” 211–34.

  97. 97.

    While the first division looks at Buddhism and Taoism as national recognized religions, the second division looks at Protestant and Catholic Christianity as a recognized world religion that has arrived in China relatively recently. The third division looks at the affairs of Islam, somewhat in-between, as a religion that has adapted to China for more than a millennium and represents the faith of eight national minorities. The fourth division deals with all the ‘others’: world religions that have no presence of significance in China, whether old ones such as Hinduism, Judaism, as well as new religions; Chinese “cults,” and “folk beliefs.”

  98. 98.

    Significantly, in my request for interviews at SARA, I was assigned scholars working on Christianity, and one scholar working on Buddhism.

  99. 99.

    Yang, “Secularist Ideology Desecularizing Reality,” 115.

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  1. University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada

    André Laliberté

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  1. SOAS China Institute, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London, United Kingdom

    Steve Tsang

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Laliberté, A. (2017). The Pluralization of the Religious Field in Taiwan and Its Impact on China. In: Tsang, S. (eds) Taiwan's Impact on China. The Nottingham China Policy Institute Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33750-0_9

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