Abstract
This chapter outlines the basics of our socioecological theory. It starts with the question of why entities such as ‘culture’ have been so successful that an evolving species like humankind could become the dominant power on the planet. It explains social systems as ‘hybrids’, a structural coupling between a (cultural) communication system and interconnected biophysical elements. In what sense are humans, domestic animals and artifacts hybrids? In what sense do these elements ‘belong’ to a certain cultural (communication) system? The constitutive operation is ‘colonization’. Human beings are culturally ‘colonized’, as are their livestock and their artifacts. These hybrid elements and the metabolic flows required to maintain them determine the social system’s impact upon the ‘rest of nature’. This influence happens through the metabolic exchange of energy and materials (which in part occurs unintentionally, such as breathing or evaporation) and through ‘labor’, or culturally guided human action. The sociometabolic model is described in the following section as an interrelation of stocks (human population, territory, livestock and artifacts) and flows (energy and materials). It has systematic similarities with national accounting and is thus useful for addressing many research questions, such as the resource productivity of a national economy or its energy intensity. To some extent, it is the description of an economy, at any time in history, using biophysical instead monetary parameters.
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Notes
- 1.
Cf. the increasingly influential concept of ‘the Anthropocene’, which names an entire geological era after the dominant human species (Crutzen 2002).
- 2.
We use the term ‘society’ for social systems with the key function of sustaining a certain human population in a certain territory, such as local communities, cities and nation states.
- 3.
Even an abandoned ruin is, of course, ‘anthropogenic’, but according to our understanding, it is no longer maintained by society and thus ‘renaturalizes’ and no longer belongs to the biophysical elements of society. It could also be ‘reintegrated’ once again, of course, and find use as a display piece.
- 4.
On these grounds, Sieferle (2011) objects to including biophysical elements beyond the human population in the social system. We would maintain, however, that this distinction is somewhat fuzzy; it is not just animals that continue (at least for some time) to function the way they have been culturally conditioned (for example, laying many eggs or returning to a house). In the age of information and communication technology (ICT), many artifacts, as long as they are supplied with energy (which is also the precondition for humans), perform the tasks they have been designed for.
- 5.
However, under typical conditions, societies are not required to meet their own resource needs entirely from within their own territory but may regularly make additional use of the resource bases of other social systems (and, indirectly, of their territories) through exchange, trade or tribute obligations.
- 6.
However, researchers from the World Systems Theory have shown that under conditions of economic and social dominance, members of dominant societies can also draw on the resource bases of other territories under favorable military and transport conditions (Chew 2001; Ciccantell and Bunker 1998; Goldfrank et al. 1999).
- 7.
Under these general conclusions, of course, counter examples come to mind, such as the relatively wide geographic reach of marble for the opulent buildings of Antiquity or the reputation of Egypt and Spain as the ‘bread basket’ of ancient Rome. However, these examples only provide evidence for exceptional cases; one should be aware that these spectacular material flows constituted only a small share of the total metabolism of these societies.
- 8.
- 9.
Of course, it is also true that where such volumes are involved, certain qualitative parameters, such as the toxicity of material flows, fall by the wayside. Other measures, such as those from life cycle analysis (LCA; see also Method Précis: Life Cycle Assessment), may also be consulted.
- 10.
In any interdisciplinary field, it is advisable to use special terminology as sparingly as possible. It is important not to use a term stemming from a specific discipline in a markedly different way from its usual application, and it is important to avoid any choice of terminology that might foster the view that this particular discipline is in any way superior to others. In other words, we have to consider terminology not only as a tool serving the interests of research but also as touching on territorial and hegemonic issues between disciplines. With the term ‘colonization’, we refer to the Latin term colonus, which means farmer. In contrast, one may also associate the term with colony and colonialism, which refers to the subjugation and exploitation of a country by a dominant power. Both connections provide quite meaningful connotations.
- 11.
Let us consider, for example, constructing a chair from a piece of wood. The intention is clear: there exists a meaningful cultural program as to what features chairs should have. The intervention may still fail; the wood may not be homogenous and may break, or the glue may not stick. However, even if the end result is a nice chair, it is not a physical object under perfect social control. It still follows its natural destiny: the wood evaporates, worms may start eating their share or the surface may rot. I take continuous intervention to prohibit these natural fates—or else relinquish the chair altogether.
- 12.
In this literature, an effort is made to define the social organization, its processes and rules and the technical equipment it uses for communication and production as one complex system.
- 13.
The recently founded journal Ecosystem Services, in its first issue, 1/2012, gives an excellent overview of the various features of the ecosystem services approach.
- 14.
We do not claim priority for discussing social metabolism. In 1991, Baccini and Brunner published a book on The Metabolism of the Anthroposphere (Baccini and Brunner 1991), and the book by Ayres and Simonis on Industrial Metabolism was—with quite a delay after the preparatory conferences under the same name in Tokyo 1988 and Maastricht 1989—published in 1994 (Ayres and Simonis 1994). In Fischer-Kowalski and Haberl (1993), the concepts of metabolism and colonization first appeared jointly. Fischer-Kowalski, then, was the first to situate the concept of metabolism explicitly within the traditions of social theory. In the International Handbook of Environmental Sociology, edited by M. Redclift and G. R. Woodgate, she was as bold as to announce society’s metabolism as a ‘rising conceptual star’ (Fischer-Kowalski 1997). Her later reviews of the intellectual history of society’s metabolism were among the most cited articles in the Journal of Industrial Ecology (Fischer-Kowalski 1998; Fischer-Kowalski and Hüttler 1998).
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Karl-Heinz Erb gratefully acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (Grant 263522 LUISE).
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Fischer-Kowalski, M., Erb, KH. (2016). Core Concepts and Heuristics. In: Haberl, H., Fischer-Kowalski, M., Krausmann, F., Winiwarter, V. (eds) Social Ecology. Human-Environment Interactions, vol 5. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33326-7_2
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