Abstract
This chapter analyses the security nexus between water, energy, food and biodiversity (WEF&B). The research question is, how could the nexus between WEF&B security be improved in a country with high environmental and social vulnerability, and which is seriously affected by climate change and organized crime? After a short conceptual review of WEF&B security, the dominant nexus is explored for Mexico, addressing first the feedbacks between water and biodiversity, and later changes in land use, food production and social vulnerability. Mexico is an oil-exporting country and has the fourth most important reserve of shale gas in the world. It has extensive drylands where 77 % of the population lives. These produce 87 % of the GDP but receive only 31 % of the water that falls as rainwater; the environment and the aquifers are thus overexploited. Furthermore, a neo-liberal free trade policy has allowed highly subsidized food imports, as well as rural–urban and international migration of peasants. Finally, extreme events influenced by climate change, such as hurricanes and droughts, have had a negative impact on human lives and on the economy. In addition, organized crime controls a part of the trade in migrants, drugs, and arms, as well as timber. A weak legal system has fostered small-scale crime, and this has increased public insecurity. As well as this, fracking activities in water-scarce regions are impacting on deep aquifers and limiting processes of adaptation to climate change in desert regions. The nexus between scarce water, overexploited aquifers, deforested areas, disasters, high food prices, weak rural government support, high energy prices and fragile governance is increasing poverty and the migration of farmers on rain-fed lands, as well as creating the risk of social instability in urban areas.
Prof. Dr. Úrsula Oswald Spring, full-time Professor/Researcher at the National University of Mexico (UNAM) in the Regional Multidisciplinary Research Center (CRIM); Email: uoswald@gmail.com.
This research was financed by PAPIIT–DGAPA Project IN300213 of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, entitled “Integrated water management of a river basin affected by climate change: risks, adaptation and resilience”. I thank Anahí Bustamante for her participation in the risk survey, Hans Günter Brauch for academic discussions, the anonymous peer-reviewers for their critical input. I am also grateful to Mike Headon for his careful English revision.
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Notes
- 1.
The world economy and an important element of policy formulation is ruled by a number of multinational corporations, which control the financial (stock market, banks, and tax havens), productive, commercial, and entertainment institutions. This globally controlled and highly interconnected financial, productive, trade, military and political system is defined in this article as global oligarchy.
- 2.
Together with the state of Mexico, this state sends one-fifth of the water supply to the Metropolitan Valley of Mexico City through the Cutzamala system (Morales/Rodríguez 2011).
- 3.
The global oligarchy are mentioned regularly in Forbes as the richest people on Earth, and UNDP (1994) showed that eighty-five of the richest people own the same wealth as 3.5 billion poor people. This means that wealth is highly concentrated and that these oligarchs, whatever country they live in (mostly the US) have investments in multinational businesses: production, trade, services, finance, and the military and arms industries.
- 4.
GEC is more than climate change. It includes in the natural system changes in the chemical-physical composition of the atmosphere, the soil, the biota, water, and subsoil. In the human system it refers to population growth, transformation in the rural and urban system, and changes in the productive processes (Brauch et al. 2008, 2009). Both the natural and the human system interact and produce negative feedbacks e.g. the emissions of greenhouse gases increase the threat of hazards, which may turn into disasters when people lack early warning mechanisms, preventive evacuation procedures, adaptation and resilience.
- 5.
- 6.
FAO: ‘Biodiversity’, at: http://www.fao.org/biodiversity/en/.
- 7.
This has not changed with the present government under Peña Nieto, as can be seen in the federal budget for 2015. This proposes increases in spending of 6.4 % for the navy and 5.8 % for the army, but only 0.8 % for education and 0.1 % for health, and a reduction of 20.5 % for agriculture (Budget approved for 2015).
- 8.
The expenditure on military jails tripled between 2006 and 2012 because of corruption among the military involved in the drug war, bribed by organized crime and fined by military tribunals.
- 9.
The most important dams are Chicoasén, La Angostura and Malpaso in Chiapas and Infernillo in Guerrero, all in indigenous and very poor regions.
- 10.
The total suspended solids, the biochemical demand for oxygen and the demand for chemical oxygen affect the coastal zones from Colima to Guerrero on the Pacific, the south of Veracruz and Tabasco on the Atlantic, and the rivers of Santiago-Lerma, Bravo and Soto La Marina (Arreguín et al. 2011). The quality of water in most cities and rural areas is not safe and most inhabitants buy water jugs, not always of the expected quality. INEGI (2010) reports drainage coverage of 86 %, but gastro-intestinal illnesses, viral diseases, poisoning, typhoid and paratyphoid are still common diseases in Mexico. The distribution of oral rehydration, immunization, clean water and better hygiene in homes and school programmes has reduced mortality from acute diarrheal diseases, especially in urban areas. But there are still important differences between states, and between urban and rural areas: Tabasco has a mortality rate per 100,000 inhabitants of 0.93, while in rural areas of Chiapas the rate is 18.03 (Cortes/Martin 2012).
- 11.
Today 2.7 million productive units (66 %) belong to peasants cultivating less than five hectares. Despite the negative climate conditions, the yield doubled between 1990 and 2007, reaching an average of 2.82 tonnes per hectare (Robles Berlanga 2010). This is the result of the so-called cero labranza, meaning that peasants produce their crops without chemical fertilizers and use animal manure and organic waste to improve soil quality. This traditional way of producing maize, with seeds carefully selected from the previous harvest, explains the success and the variety of the germ plasm of maize, as well as its resistance to adverse climate conditions and the maintenance of soil fertility in mountainous areas. During the NAFTA process, Mexico negotiated a protection clause for the importation of maize, but never implemented it nor charged import taxes, and so has lost taxes worth more than US$27 billion since 1994 (SHCP 2011); this has seriously affected small-scale producers.
- 12.
Ejido is the land peasants struggled for during the Mexican Revolution in 1910 and later was redistributed -sometimes collectively- from the government through land reforms.
- 13.
Mexico imported in 2015 about 25.3 % of its maize consumption, 59.0 % of wheat and 88.4 % of soya beans (INEGI 2015).
- 14.
Ensanut (2012) indicates that Mexicans consume the double of the recommended intake of sugar, but their diet is deficient in cereals, legumes, fruits and vegetables. Only 14 % of small children are adequately fed and the abuse of soft drinks and the lack of exercise is increasing obesity.
- 15.
This biofuel policy has produced additional threats related to climate change: the 2012 drought affected 75 % of the maize production in Iowa, Illinois, Kansas and Nebraska, and in the US as a whole with an average of 56 %, and corn production declined from 379 to 274 million tonnes, that is, 100 million tonnes less than expected. Concerns over food security forced China to abandon its ethanol programme. Mexico, with a deficit of maize, never seriously started to produce bioethanol, but the government learnt from the price rises that food security prevents conflicts and protests.
- 16.
One example of how the lack of water for people, productive activities and agriculture was dealt with is provided by the Hermosillo Valley, the capital of Sonora. The three levels of government constructed an aqueduct from the Novillo dam with no negotiation or any environmental impact study. The traditional water rights of the indigenous Yaqui people were overruled. This arbitrary behaviour by the government has created a critical ongoing water conflict in Mexico.
- 17.
Population has increased from 20 million in 1940 to 120 million in 2013. In 2011, however, the fecundity index fell to 2.17, and the number of children per woman decreased on average from 6.78 in 1960 to 2.28 in 2010. There is greater population growth in rural areas, while urban growth can be explained by rural–urban migration trends; since 1960, the urban population has exceeded the rural. Economic activities and wealth are concentrated in the industrial and service sectors in urban settlements. In 2012 agriculture produced 6.7 % of GDP and employed 13.5 % of the workforce; in the previous year, poor climate conditions had reduced primary GDP by 2.6 %. These data illustrate a sectoral imbalance, with low salaries and a high dependency on climate factors.
- 18.
Food items: grains and seeds (white, red, blue, and yellow maize, cacao, amaranth, chia, peanut, sunflower, pine); pods (beans, gourds, mesquite); vegetables (squash, quintoniles); leaves (purslane, chaya); fruits (green and red tomatoes, varieties of potatoes, chayote, chilacayote, mamey, avocado, custard apple, papaya, soursop, sapodilla, plums, lechuguilla, chia, guava, dragon fruit, tuna, nopal, chico, tejocotes); roots (sweet potatoes, yam beans); flowers (hibiscus, squash flower, yucca); hot peppers (guajillo, habanero, jalapeno, chipotle, chile de arbol, etc.); herbs (coriander, epazote, vanilla, annatto dye, onion, sacret leaf [Piper Auritum], pumpkin, chipilin); mushrooms (huitlacoche); insects (chinicuiles, grasshoppers, escamoles-ant eggs, jumiles); meat (turkey, deer, xoloitzcuintle, birds, fish, shellfish, shrimps, sea fruits and many other animals), etc.
- 19.
Seventy per cent of direct GHG in agriculture comes from livestock (Dickie et al. 2014), especially from grazing animals (cows, sheep etc.), and less meat production would reduce these GHG emissions.
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Oswald Spring, Ú. (2016). The Water, Energy, Food and Biodiversity Nexus: New Security Issues in the Case of Mexico. In: Brauch, H., Oswald Spring, Ú., Bennett, J., Serrano Oswald, S. (eds) Addressing Global Environmental Challenges from a Peace Ecology Perspective. The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 4. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30990-3_6
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