Abstract
In pastoral societies, economic and ecological aims are not necessarily in conflict. These societies, through mobility, engage different ecological niches as a livelihood strategy. Specific case studies from Inner Asia indicate that instead of seeking to replace pastoralism as an ecological profession through forced sedentarization, governments should seek to enhance its historically proven potential for food and livelihood security. The case from the Altay Mountains and the Tian Shan documents the effect of sedentarizing pastoral communities, resulting in the removal of sociocultural and ecological diversity, with profound consequences on income. It is an example of the central government asserting administrative authority in the name of ecological restoration while pursuing strictly an instrumental agenda of economic extraction of key renewable and nonrenewable resources. The case from Inner Mongolia shows increased economic and ecological vulnerability of pastoral societies caused by government-induced sedentarization programs but also illustrates the adaptive capacity of pastoral institutions under such policies. The final case, from the Pamirs, shows that under conditions of political and economic stress, interactions between diverse ecological professions such as farmers and herders is central to livelihood and food security through mutual dependence. It is the basis for survival.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Zhaosu, as the hometown of “heavenly horses” in ancient tales, has a long tradition of horse raising.
- 2.
In 2010, the price of a lamb was about1100 yuan, that of a calf was about 2500 yuan, and that of a horse was about 5000 yuan. The average income from a mu of crop field is about 800 yuan. 1 mu = 666.67 m2.
- 3.
In 2010, the price for herding one cattle was 50 yuan per month and the price for herding a sheep/goat was 8 yuan per month.
References
Amitai R (2005) Mongols, Turks, and others: Eurasian nomads and the sedentary world. Brill, Leiden
Barfield T (1981) The Central Asian Arabs of Afghanistan: pastoral nomadism in transition. University of Texas Press, Austin
Becquelin N (2004) Staged development in Xinjiang. China Q 178:358–378, 10.1017/S0305741004000219
Behnke R (1993) Range ecology at disequilibrium: new models of natural variability and pastoral adaptation in African savannas. Overseas Development Institute, London
Benson L, Svanberg I (1998) China’s last Nomads: the history and culture of China’s Kazaks. ME Sharpe, Armonk
Bliss F (2006) Social and economic change in the Pamirs, Tajikistan. Routledge, New York
Brown C, Waldron S, Longworth J (2008) Sustainable development in western China: managing people, livestock and grasslands in pastoral areas. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
Cerny A (2010) Going where the grass is greener: China Kazaks and the Oralman immigration policy in Kazakhstan. Pastoralism 1(2):218–247
Chambers R (1997) Whose reality counts? Putting the first last. Intermediate Technology Publication, London
Chilonda P, Otte J (2006) Indicators to monitor trends in livestock production at national, regional and international levels. Livestock Res Rural Dev 18(8):117
Cliff TMJ (2009) Neo oasis: the Xinjiang Bingtuan in the twenty-first century. Asian Stud Rev 33(1):83–106
Daftary F (1990) The Ismailis: their history and doctrines. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Dong SK, Gao HW, Xu GC, Hou XY, Long RJ, Kang MY, Lassoie PJ (2007) Farmer and professional attitudes to the large-scale ban on livestock grazing of grasslands in China. Environ Conserv 34(3):246–254
Dong SK, Wen L, Zhu L, Li XY (2010) Implication of coupled natural and human systems in sustainable rangeland ecosystem management in HKH region. Frontiers of Earth Science in China 2010 4(1):42–50
Dong SK, Ren Z (2015) Animal husbandry civilization and grassland health: understanding the coupling system between grassland animal husbandry ecology and human society. J Lanzhou Univ (Soc Sci) 43(4):105–110
Everitt BS, Landau S, Leese M, Stahl D, Shewhart WA, Wilks SS (2011) Cluster analysis, 5th edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9780470977811
Felmy S, Kreutzmann H (2004) Wakahn Wolusswali in Badakhshan. Observations and reflections from Afghanistan’s periphery. Erdkunde 58(2):97–117
Fernandez-Gimenez ME, Le Febre S (2006) Mobility in pastoral systems: dynamic flux or downward trend? Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 13(5):341–362
Goodman D (1989) China’s regional development. Routledge for Royal Institute of International Affairs London, London
Goodman D (2004) China’s campaign to “Open up the West”: national, provincial, and local perspectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Greenwood DJ, Levin M (1998) Introduction to action research: social research for social change. Sage Publications, London
Grotenhuis ET (2002) Along the silk road. Smithsonian Institution, Washington
Hardin G (1968) The tragedy of the commons. Science 162:1243–1248
Harris RB (2010) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. J Arid Environ 74(1):1–12
Hunsberger AC (2000) Nasir Khusraw, The Ruby of Badakhshan. IB Taurus, London
Kassam K-AS (2009a) Viewing change through the prism of indigenous human ecology: findings from the Afghan and Tajik Pamirs. Hum Ecol 37(6):377–390
Kassam K-AS (2009b) Biocultural diversity and indigenous ways of knowing: human ecology in the Arctic. University of Calgary Press, Calgary
Kassam K (2001) North of 60: homeland or frontier. In: A passion for identity: Canadian studies for the 21st century, Scarborough: Nelson Thompson Learning, pp 433–455
Kreutzmann H (2003) Ethnic minorities and marginality in the Pamirian Knot: survival of Wakhi and Kirghiz in a harsh environment and global contexts. Geogr J 169(3):215–235
Li WJ, Zhang Q (2009) Jiedu Caoyuan Kunjing: Dui Ganhan Banganhan Caoyuan Liyong he Guanli Ruogan Wenti de Renshi. [Understanding the Grassland Dilemma: several problems on grassland use and management in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas]. Economic Science Press, Beijing.
Li WJ, Huntsinger L (2011) China’s grassland contract policy and its impacts on herder ability to benefit in Inner Mongolia: tragic feedbacks. Ecol Soc 16(2):1, http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol16/iss2/art1/
Liao C, Barrett C, Kassam K-A (2015) Does diversification improve livelihoods? Pastoral Households in Xinjiang, China
Liao C, Sullivan PJ, Barrett CB, Kassam K-A (2014a) Socioenvironmental threats to pastoral livelihoods: risk perceptions in the Altay and Tianshan mountains of Xinjiang, China. Risk Anal 34(4):640–655
Liao C, Morreale SJ, Kassam K-AS, Sullivan PJ, Fei D (2014b) Following the green: coupled pastoral migration and vegetation dynamics in the Altay and Tianshan mountains of Xinjiang, China. Appl Geogr 46:61–70. doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.10.010
Li J (1991) Xinjiang climate. Beijing: Meteorology Press
Longworth J (1993) China’s pastoral region: sheep and wool, minority nationalities, rangeland degradation and sustainable development. CAB International, Wallingford
Liu JG, Dietz T, Carpenter SR, Folke C, Alberti M, Redman CL, Schneider SH, Ostrom E, Pell AN, Lubchenco J, Taylor WW, Ouyang ZY, Deadman P, Kratz T, Provencher W (2007) Coupled human and natural systems. Ambio 36:639–649
Mi’erzhahan J (2004) Kazak people, 2nd edn. Minzu Press, Beijing
Miller DJ (2000) Tough times for Tibetan Nomads in western China: snowstorms, settling down, fences and the demise of traditional nomadic pastoralism. Nomadic Peoples 4(1):83–109
National Development and Reform Commissions (2011) New policies for returning rangeland to grassland. http://www.sdpc.gov.cn/xwfb/t20110831_431891.htm
Miles MB, Huberman AM (1994) Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook, 2nd edn. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Olimova S (2005) Impact of external migration on development of mountainous regions: Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Strategies for development and food security in mountainous areas of Central Asia. In: International workshop, Dushanbe, Tajikistan, June 6–10, 2005
Ostrom E, Dietz T, Dolšak N, Stern PC, Stonich S, Weber EU (2002) The drama of the commons. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
Patton MQ (1990) Qualitative evaluation and research methods, 2nd edn. Sage, Newbury Park, CA
Sandford S (1983) Management of pastoral development in the third world. Wiley, Chichester
Starr S (2004) Xinjian : China’s Muslim borderland. ME Sharpe, Armonk
Toops S (2004) Demographics and development in Xinjiang after 1949
Wang XY, Zhang Q (2012) Climate variability, change of land use and vulnerability in pastoral society: a case from Inner Mongolia. Nomadic Peoples 16(1):68–87
Wood F (2002) The Silk Road. Folio Society, London
Wu ZZ, Du W (2008) Pastoral nomad rights in Inner Mongolia. Nomadic Peoples 12(2):13–33
Xinhua (2007a) China’s economic and social development plan. China Daily. Retrieved from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2007-03/19/content_830762_2.htm
Xinhua (2007b) Hu Jintao proposes scientific outlook on development for tackling China’s immediate woes, challenges. http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-10/15/content_6883135.htm
XLDRC (Xilingol League Development and Reform Commission) (2011) Survey report on the implementation of Xilingol League Beijing-Tianjin sand source control program, 9 Dec 2011. http://www.xlgldrc.gov.cn/gzdt/vzhgggzdt/201112/t20111209_721907.html
XUAR Chorography Committee (2010) Xinjiang Yearbook 2010. Xinjiang Statistical Bureau Press, Urumqi, China
Yeh ET (2009) Greening western China: a critical view. Geoforum 40:884–894
Zhang MA, Borjigin E, Zhang H (2007) Mongolian nomadic culture and ecological culture: on the ecological reconstruction in the agro-pastoral mosaic zone in northern China. Ecol Econ 62(1):19–26
Zhang Q (2012) The dilemma of conserving rangeland by means of development: exploring ecological resettlement in a pastoral township of Inner Mongolia. Nomadic People 16(1):88–115
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kassam, KA.S., Liao, C., Dong, S. (2016). Sociocultural and Ecological Systems of Pastoralism in Inner Asia: Cases from Xinjiang and Inner Mongolia in China and the Pamirs of Badakhshan, Afghanistan. In: Dong, S., Kassam, KA., Tourrand, J., Boone, R. (eds) Building Resilience of Human-Natural Systems of Pastoralism in the Developing World. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30732-9_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30732-9_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-30730-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-30732-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)