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Biological Determinism, Free Will and Moral Responsibility pp 19–40Cite as

Biological Basis of Behaviour

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Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Ethics ((BRIEFSETHIC))

Abstract

With the exception of the most involuntary of reflexes, my actions are the consequence of the processes going on within my brain. In this chapter, our focus switches to scientific approaches which offer insight into the underlying biology of behaviour. Findings emerging from recent developments in both genetics and neuroscience are considered. The strengths and weaknesses of a range of methodologies used for imaging the brain are reviewed, with particular attention given to the roles played by Electroencephalography, Positron Emission Tomography and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the study of operational brains. We reflect on the implications for “free will” of a series of experiments which appear to demonstrate brain activity prior to conscious awareness of decision. Validated examples of genes involved in behaviour are discussed, alongside the growing importance of an understanding of the molecular mechanism by which expression of “hard wired” genes can be moderated by environmental stimuli.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A distinction is drawn between “genomics” in which a significant number of different genes are investigated at the same time (possibly the entire genetic make-up of an individual) as against “genetics” where the focus is more likely to be on relationship with one or two specific genes.

  2. 2.

    It is important to distinguish between different uses of the term “reductionist”. For example, reductionism as a research methodology, in which large problems are broken down into more manageable and testable questions, remains a profoundly valuable tool for the conduct of much science. In contrast, the kind of ontological or causal reductionism, represented here by Crick, is a philosophical position offering (over)simplistic explanations of the functioning of life.

  3. 3.

    Addition, in order, of a methyl ( –CH3 group), acetyl group ( –COCH3), a 76 amino acid ubiquitin molecule, or an approximately 100 amino acid Small Ubiqitin-like MOdifier. The details of these processes is irrelevant to the current argument.

  4. 4.

    Also known as norepinephrine.

  5. 5.

    By convention the abbreviations for proteins are given in regular text, whereas the abbreviations for genes are put in italics.

  6. 6.

    Replacement of the usual cytosine (C) by a thymine (T) base at position 936 in the coding sequence.

  7. 7.

    Females have two X chromosomes; mutation on one copy may be compensated for by a functional copy on the other X chromosome. Because males have one X and one Y chromosome, they only have one copy of genes on the X chromosome and therefore any deficiency will be manifest.

  8. 8.

    The researchers were intentionally mutating the mouse genome, but via the relatively random mechanism of transposon mutagenesis. The fact that they hit upon the MAOA gene was providential and not their initial goal.

  9. 9.

    That is to say a long-term investigation of a group, attempting to correlate their experiences with outcomes, without pre-determining the interventions they will encounter.

  10. 10.

    Study of CpG methylation was actually conducted using white blood cells, a validated proxy for methylation in the brain. MAOA activity within the brain was monitored via the metabolism of a radioactively-labelled substrate clorgyline, which is only processed by this enzyme. PET was used to record the levels of radioactivity.

  11. 11.

    Despite the interpretations made within the research articles by Libet himself, and by countless others examining the significance of his work, Libet still wishes to retain the potential for free will to be real. In an essay published in 2011, he summarises his position thus: “My conclusion about free will, one genuinely free in the nondetermined sense, is then that its existence is at least as good, if not a better, scientific option than is its denial by determinist theory. Given the speculative nature of both determinist and nondeterminist theories, why not adopt the view that we do have free will (until some real contradictory evidence may appear, if it ever does)” (Libet 2011: p 9).

  12. 12.

    First use of the term “free won’t” is generally attributed to Vilayanar Ramachandran but has readily been adopted by Libet and others.

  13. 13.

    The authors are aware of the potential criticism of any experiment with “negative findings” that it may simply not have worked properly.

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  1. Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Leicester, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK

    Chris Willmott

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Willmott, C. (2016). Biological Basis of Behaviour. In: Biological Determinism, Free Will and Moral Responsibility. SpringerBriefs in Ethics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-30391-8_3

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