Abstract
Many people treat the terms “sex” and “gender” as though they were synonymous. Biological sex comprises physical attributes such as external genitalia and internal reproductive structures such as gonads, sex chromosomes, and sex hormones. Gender, on the other hand, can be a little less straightforward and is not inherently or exclusively associated to one’s physical anatomy. Gender is a product of the complex interrelationship between an individual’s biological sex and one’s gender identity, which is an internal sense of self as male, female, both, or neither.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abelson AG (1981) The development of gender identity in the autistic child. Child Care Health Dev 7(6):347–356
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
Auyeung B, Baron‐Cohen S, Ashwin E, Knickmeyer R, Taylor K, Hackett G (2009) Fetal testosterone and autistic traits. Br J Psychol 100(1):1–22
Baron-Cohen S (2002) The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends Cogn Sci 6(6):248–254
Baron-Cohen S, Richler J, Bisarya D, Gurunathan N, Wheelwright S (2003) The systemizing quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger syndrome or high–functioning autism, and normal sex differences. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B: Biol Sci 358(1430):361–374
Behringer RR, Finegold MJ, Cate RL (1994) Müllerian-inhibiting substance function during mammalian sexual development. Cell 79(3):415–425
Bejerot S, Eriksson JM (2014) Sexuality and gender role in autism spectrum disorder: a case control study. PLoS One 9(1):e87961
Berenbaum SA, Bryk KK, Nowak N, Quigley CA, Moffat S (2009) Fingers as a marker of prenatal androgen exposure. Endocrinology 150(11):5119–5124
Blumberg SJ, Bramlett MD, Kogan MD, Schieve LA, Jones JR, Lu MC (2013) Changes in prevalence of parent-reported autism spectrum disorder in school-aged US children: 2007 to 2011–2012. Natl Health Stat Rep 65(20):1–7
Bogaert AF, Hershberger S (1999) The relation between sexual orientation and penile size. Arch Sex Behav 28(3):213–221
De Vries AL, Noens IL, Cohen-Kettenis PT, van Berckelaer-Onnes IA, Doreleijers TA (2010) Autism spectrum disorders in gender dysphoric children and adolescents. J Autism Dev Disord 40(8):930–936
Deogracias JJ, Johnson LL, Meyer-Bahlburg HF, Kessler SJ, Schober JM, Zucker KJ (2007) The gender identity/gender dysphoria questionnaire for adolescents and adults. J Sex Res 44(4):370–379
Dessens AB, Slijper FM, Drop SL (2005) Gender dysphoria and gender change in chromosomal females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Arch Sex Behav 34(4):389–397
Dörner G, Rohde W, Stahl F, Krell L, Masius WG (1975) A neuroendocrine predisposition for homosexuality in men. Arch Sex Behav 4(1):1–8
Eckert P, McConnell-Ginet S (2003) Language and gender. Cambridge University Press
Fombonne E (2005) The changing epidemiology of autism. J Appl Res Intellect Disabil 18(4):281–294
Gagnon JH, Simon W (2011) Sexual conduct: The social sources of human sexuality. Transaction Publishers, Piscataway
Gallucci G, Hackerman F, Schmidt CW Jr (2005) Gender identity disorder in an adult male with Asperger’s syndrome. Sex Disabil 23(1):35–40
George R, Stokes MA (submitted) Sexual orientation and gender-identity among high functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorder
Gladue BA, Green R, Hellman RE (1984) Neuroendocrine response to estrogen and sexual orientation. Science 225(4669):1496–1499
Golubock S (2003) Different on the inside. In: Miller JK (ed) Women from another planet? Our lives in the universe of autism. 1st Books Library, Fairfield, pp 157–70, Print
Gooren L (2006) The biology of human psychosexual differentiation. Horm Behav 50(4):589–601
Happé F, Frith U (1995) Theory of mind in autism. In: Learning and cognition in autism. Springer US, pp 177–97
Hembree WC, Cohen-Kettenis P, Delemarre-van de Waal HA, Gooren LJ, Meyer III WJ, Spack NP, Tangpricha V, Montori VM (2009) Endocrine treatment of transsexual persons: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94(9):3132–3154
Hines M, Brook C, Conway GS (2004) Androgen and psychosexual development: core gender identity, sexual orientation, and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). J Sex Res 41(1):75–81
Hollander E, Soorya L, Wasserman S, Esposito K, Chaplin W, Anagnostou E (2006) Divalproex sodium vs. placebo in the treatment of repetitive behaviours in autism spectrum disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 9(02):209–213
Jenkins WJ (2010) Can anyone tell me why I’m gay? What research suggests regarding the origins of sexual orientation. N Am J Psychol 12(2):279
Jones RM, Wheelwright S, Farrell K, Martin E, Green R, Di Ceglie D, Baron-Cohen S (2012) Brief report: female-to-male transsexual people and autistic traits. J Autism Dev Disord 42(2):301–306
Knickmeyer RC, Baron-Cohen S (2006) Topical review: fetal testosterone and sex differences in typical social development and in autism. J Child Neurol 21(10):825–845
Knickmeyer RC, Wheelwright S, Taylor K, Raggatt P, Hackett G, Baron-Cohen S (2005) Gender-typed play and amniotic testosterone. Dev Psychol 41(3):517
Knickmeyer R, Baron-Cohen S, Fane BA, Wheelwright S, Mathews GA, Conway GS, Brook CG, Hines M (2006) Androgens and autistic traits: A study of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Horm Behav 50(1):148–53. Epub 2006 Apr 19
Kraemer B, Delsignore A, Gundelfinger R, Schnyder U, Hepp U (2005) Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome and gender identity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 14(5):292–296
Labov W (2011) Principles of linguistic change, cognitive and cultural factors, (Vol. 3). John Wiley & Sons
Landén M, Rasmussen P (1997) Gender identity disorder in a girl with autism—a case report. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 6(3):170–173
Leekam SR, Libby SJ, Wing L, Gould J, Taylor C (2002) The diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders: algorithms for ICD‐10 childhood autism and wing and Gould autistic spectrum disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 43(3):327–342
MacCulloch MJ, Waddington JL (1981) Neuroendocrine mechanisms and the aetiology of male and female homosexuality. Br J Psychiatry 139(4):341–345
McFadden D, Champlin CA (2000) Comparison of auditory evoked potentials in heterosexual, homosexual, and bisexual males and females. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 1(1):89–99
Meyer-Bahlburg HF, Dolezal C, Baker SW, New MI (2008) Sexual orientation in women with classical or non-classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a function of degree of prenatal androgen excess. Arch Sex Behav 37(1):85–99
Meyerding J (2003) Growing up genderless. In: Miller JK (ed) Women from another planet? Our lives in the universe of autism. 1st Books Library, Fairfield, pp 157–70, Print
Mukaddes NM (2002) Gender identity problems in autistic children. Child Care Health Dev 28(6):529–532
Paikoff RL, Brooks-Gunn J (1991) Do parent-child relationships change during puberty? Psychol Bull 110(1):47
Pankhurst MW, McLennan IS (2012) Inhibin B and anti-Müllerian hormone/Müllerian-inhibiting substance may contribute to the male bias in autism. Transl Psychiatry 2(8):e148
Parker JG, Asher SR (1993) Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Dev Psychol 29(4):611
Pasterski V, Gilligan L, Curtis R (2014) Traits of autism spectrum disorders in adults with gender dysphoria. Arch Sex Behav, 43(2):387–393
Perera H, Gadambanathan T, Weerasiri S (2003) Gender identity disorder presenting in a girl with Asperger’s disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder. Ceylon Med J 48(2):57–58
Pillard RC, Weinrich JD (1987) The periodic table model of the gender transpositions: part I. A theory based on masculinization and defeminization of the brain. J Sex Res 23(4):425–454
Rahman Q, Wilson GD (2003) Sexual orientation and the 2nd to 4th finger length ratio: evidence for organising effects of sex hormones or developmental instability? Psychoneuroendocrinology 28(3):288–303
Rees AM, Doyle C, Miesch J. Sexual orientation, gender role expression, and stereotyping: the intersection between sexism and sexual prejudice (homophobia). Vistas 2006 Online
Robinow O (2009) Paraphilia and transgenderism: a connection with Asperger’s disorder? Sex Relatsh Ther 24(2):143–151
Robinson SJ, Manning JT (2000) The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length and male homosexuality. Evol Hum Behav 21(5):333–345
Rosenfield A, Wasserman S (1993) Sexual development in the early school-aged child. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2:393–406
Strang JF, Kenworthy L, Dominska A, Sokoloff J, Kenealy LE, Berl M, … Wallace GL (2014) Increased gender variance in autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Sex Behav 43(8):1525–1533
Tateno M, Tateno Y, Saito T (2008) Comorbid childhood gender identity disorder in a boy with Asperger syndrome. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 62(2):238–238
VanderLaan DP, Postema L, Wood H, Singh D, Fantus S, Hyun J, … Zucker KJ (2015) Do children with gender dysphoria have intense/obsessional interests?. J Sex R 52(2):213–219
Wallien MS, Cohen-Kettenis PT (2008) Psychosexual outcome of gender-dysphoric children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(12):1413–1423
Williams PG, Allard AM, Sears L (1996) Case study: cross-gender preoccupations with two male children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 26(6):635–642
Williams TJ, Pepitone ME, Christensen SE, Cooke BM, Huberman AD, Breedlove NJ, … Breedlove SM (2000) Finger-length ratios and sexual orientation. Nature 404(6777):455–456
Zucker KJ, Lawrence AA (2009) Epidemiology of gender identity disorder: recommendations for the standards of care of the world professional association for transgender health. Int J Transgenderism 11(1):8–18
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
George, R., Stokes, M. (2016). “Gender Is Not on My Agenda!”: Gender Dysphoria and Autism Spectrum Disorder. In: Mazzone, L., Vitiello, B. (eds) Psychiatric Symptoms and Comorbidities in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29695-1_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29695-1_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-29693-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-29695-1
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)