Abstract
Cementitious materials are essential parts in any radioactive waste disposal facility (either shallow or deep underground facilities). Despite these materials having been extensively used and studied, there is still a need to investigate and understand their long-term behavior due to the fact that disposal is a passive system and regulatory requirements for the safe disposal range from 300 to few thousands of years, so there is a need to ensure that the system will work as intended for this period. An extensive array of researches have been devoted to study the feasibility of using cement or cement-based materials in immobilizing and solidifying different radioactive wastes and the feasibility of its potential use as engineering barriers. In this work, the current understanding of cement hydration mechanisms and kinetics will be presented. Experimental and predictive trends to assess the long-term behavior of cementitious material will be reviewed, and recent researches on the utilization of cements or cement-based materials as engineering barriers in radioactive waste disposal will be summarized. Finally this work will examine how these researches contributed to the current knowledge of long-term behavior of cementitious materials in disposal conditions and analyze if this knowledge has provided required inputs to regulation.
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Abbreviations
- a, b :
-
Tortuosity constant (dimensionless)
- A 1 :
-
Effective area of concrete surrounding the reinforcement bar (cm2)
- A i :
-
Radioactivity in the waste form (Bq)
- a i :
-
Specific radioactivity of the solution (Bq/L)
- As 1 :
-
Area of one reinforcement bar (cm2)
- B :
-
Linear strain caused by one mole of sulfate reduced in 1 m3 (m3/mole)
- b f :
-
Fracture aperture (cm)
- C :
-
Concentration (mg/L)
- Cl:
-
Chloride concentration in bulk solution (mg/L)
- D :
-
Diffusion coefficient (cm2/s)
- Dr:
-
Reinforcement bar diameter (cm)
- E :
-
Young modulus (20 GPa)
- g :
-
Gravitational Acceleration (980 cm/s2)
- h 2 :
-
Distance between neutral axis and the lower face (cm)
- I :
-
Source/sink term for contaminant (dimensionless)
- K :
-
Hydraulic conductivity (cm/s)
- k :
-
Reaction rate constant (s−1)
- K d :
-
Concentration factor of radionuclide (mL/g)
- K mp :
-
Permeability of cement matrix (cm2)
- m :
-
Quantity of sulfate reacted with cement (mole/kg anhydrous cement)
- NR i :
-
Normalized leaching rate of nonradioactive nuclides (g/cm2day)
- q i :
-
Specific activity of a given radionuclide in a waste form (Bq/g)
- R d :
-
Retardation coefficient (dimensionless)
- s :
-
Crack spacing (cm/crack)
- S :
-
Surface area of the waste form in contact with water (cm2)
- t :
-
Time (s)
- tb:
-
Bottom of the concrete cover over reinforcement (cm)
- U o :
-
Maximum network dissolution velocity (cm/d)
- v :
-
Poisson’s ratio (dimensionless)
- V :
-
Solution volume (L)
- W :
-
Moisture source/sink term (dimensionless)
- WC:
-
Water-to-cement weight ratio (dimensionless)
- w i :
-
Mass of nuclide in the waste form (g)
- w o :
-
Mass of the waste form (g)
- X :
-
Depth of carbonation penetration (cm)
- x :
-
Spatial coordinate in the direction of flow (cm)
- x c :
-
Concrete thickness over steel reinforcement (cm)
- x d :
-
Depth of deterioration (cm)
- y :
-
Spatial coordinate normal to the direction of flow (cm)
- ζ :
-
Soil moisture capacity \( \zeta =\delta \theta /\delta \psi \)
- λ :
-
Decay constant \( \left({\mathrm{s}}^{-1}\right) \)
- ρ :
-
Density of water (g/cm3)
- γ :
-
Fracture energy of concrete (J/m2)
- ψ :
-
Water head Pressure (cm)
- α :
-
Roughness factor for fracture pain (dimensionless)
- ε :
-
Strain in steel reinforcement (dimensionless)
- μ :
-
Viscosity (g/cm s)
- θ :
-
Volumetric water content (cm3/cm3)
- ρ c :
-
Bulk density (g/mL)
- θ c :
-
Total porosity (dimensionless)
- α 1, α t :
-
Longitudinal and transverse dispersivity (cm)
- Alum:
-
Aluminate in unhydrated cement
- c :
-
Contaminant
- cc:
-
Critical chloride for initiation of corrosion
- ch:
-
Chloride in surrounding material
- E :
-
Reacted sulfate as ettringite
- F :
-
Final state
- i :
-
Intrinsic
- ic:
-
Total inorganic carbon in water
- ini:
-
Initial critical chloride in concrete pore water
- k :
-
Sulfate in kinetic experiment
- Mg:
-
Magnesium in bulk solution
- o:
-
Initial state
- port:
-
Bulk portlandite in concrete solid
- s :
-
Sulfate in bulk solution
- sat:
-
Saturation in aqueous solution
- spall:
-
Characteristic for reaction
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Acknowledgment
This research has been conducted within the IAEA-coordinated research project (CRP) “Behaviors of Cementitious Materials in Long Term Storage and Disposal.”
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Abdel Rahman, R.O., Ojovan, M.I. (2016). Recent Trends in the Evaluation of Cementitious Material in Radioactive Waste Disposal. In: Wang, L., Wang, MH., Hung, YT., Shammas, N. (eds) Natural Resources and Control Processes. Handbook of Environmental Engineering, vol 17. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26800-2_9
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