Abstract
Albania is a small country but its regional hydrogeological picture is very heterogeneous. The complex geological-structural and geomorphological conditions of Albania have resulted in the formation of diverse aquifers with regard to their hydraulic type, resources, hydrodynamics and hydrochemical characteristics. Among them there are some deep aquifers associated with different rocks like evaporate, carbonate and molasse, hosting thermal waters. Based on geological conditions, as well as hydrochemical and thermal characteristics, four hydrochemical water types and four related provinces of thermal waters are distinguished in Albania. H2S, SO4–Ca-type waters (temperature 43 °C) originate from evaporite rocks of the Korab Province. Samples of the Cl–Na–Ca or Cl–SO4–Na–Ca-type, of varying temperatures and H2S concentrations, originate from deep–lying limestone–dolomite anticline structures of the Kruja Province. Most samples from the Pre-Adriatic Depression Province related to deep-laying Neogene, mainly Tortonian, sandstone aquifers are of the Na–Cl water type with H2S and CH4 gases and usually with high Br and J concentrations. A few water samples from the Ionian Province are of the Cl–Na water-type and measure varying temperatures. For each province the geological–structural, thermal and hydrochemical characteristics are described in the paper. The richest province in terms of thermal water resources is the Kruja Province, where most of the warm and hot thermal H2S springs are located.
Keywords
Introduction
In Albania, the presence of high mountain chains and active fault systems favors the rise of deep waters that discharge at the surface as thermomineral springs. A number of important thermal springs rich in H2S, mostly located in the Kruja tectonic zone, rise from deep karst aquifers related to buried anticline carbonate structures. Important thermal water resources have also been explored by many deep oil and gas wells. Some thermal springs, like Peshkopi, Llixh Elbasan and Leskoviku, and the deep wells of Bilaj and Kozan, are widely used for balneotherapy due to their excellent curative properties.
The first noteworthy investigation of thermal waters in Albania was undertaken by Avgustinski et al. (1957). That study presented detailed chemical analyses of most thermal springs and some free-flowing deep wells, and proposed a regionalization of thermal water types of Albania. Subsequent investigations were partial and do not represent major contributions to this field. Some important data about thermal waters (simple chemical analyses and some water temperature measurements) have been collected from deep oil and gas exploration wells. Based on the data on deep wells, the hydrochemical characteristics of deep groundwaters were summarized by Shtrepi (1971, 1972). He drew an important conclusion about the hydrochemical inversion of deep groundwater in the Peri-Adriatic Depression (Shtrepi 1980). The effect of evaporate tectonics on the development of regional faulting and the formation of thermal waters of the Kruja zone was described by Velaj (1995, 1999, 2002).
Studies on the geothermal field and an evaluation of geothermal energy in Albania were carried out during the preparation of the Atlas of Geothermal Resources in Albania. The temperature, average geothermal gradient, heat flow density and geothermal zone maps were produced from the data, at the depths of 100, 500, 1000, 2000 and 3000 m below the surface (Frashëri et al. 2004).
The goal of this paper is to summarize existing data on thermal groundwater, in close relation to the geological-tectonic construction of Albania, as part of the deep regional groundwater flow system, and the thermal springs as their discharge features.
Geological Setting of the Albanides
The Albanides represent an assemblage of geological structures in the territory of Albania, as part of the southern branch of the Mediterranean Alpine Belt (Fig. 1). Two major peleogeographic domains comprise the Albanides: Internal Albanides and External Albanides (Aubouen and Ndoja 1964; Papa 1993; Meço and Aliaj 2000; Xhomo et al. 2002). Internal Albanides are characterized by the presence of an intensively tectonized ophiolitic belt, and External Albanides are part of the South Adriatic sedimentary basin and are affected only by the late Miocene tectonic stages. The Earth’s crust in the Albanides is interrupted by a system of longitudinal faults of NW–SE direction and some transversal faults that even touch the mantle (Aliaj 1989; Frashëri et al. 2003).
The tectonic zones of the Internal Albanides extend in the eastern part of Albania (Fig. 1). The Korabi Zone continues into the Golia Zone in the Dinarides and the Pelagonian Zone in the Hellenides, and is generally represented by Paleozoic terrigene metamorphic rocks (Meço and Aliaj 2000; Xhomo et al. 2002). The Mirdita Zone continues as the Serbian Zone in the Dinarides and the Subpelagonian Zone in the Hellenides. The lower tectonic unit of the Mirdita Zone is presented by an allochthonous ophiolitic belt (2–14 km thick), overthrown onto the formation of the Krasta–Cukali Zone of the External Albanides (Meço and Aliaj 2000; Xhomo et al. 2002). During later tectonic-neotectonic stages, Neogene molasse was deposited in the Korça-Librazhd and Burrel inner depressions. The Gashi Zone continues as the Durmitori Zone of the Dinarides and consists of metamorphic and terrigene rocks, limestone and volcanic rocks.
The tectonic zones of the External Albanides extend in western part of Albania (Fig. 1). The Alps Zone is analogous to the High Karst in the Dinarides and the Parnas Zone in the Hellenides. The oldest rocks that outcrop within this zone are Permian sandstones and conglomerates. Most of the Albanian Alps consist mainly of Mesozoic limestone forming some monoclines, combined with smaller anticlines. The Krasta–Cukali Zone is analogous to the Budva Zone of the Dinarides and the Pindos Zone in the Hellenides, and represents an intermediate zone between the Internal and External Albanides. Most of the zone is filled with Cretaceous and Paleogene flysch formations and some limestone, but Triassic–Cretaceous limestone prevails in the Cukali Mountain (Mt.), with some outcropping of Triassic effusive rocks and Cretaceous-Eocene flysch formations. The Kruja Zone is analogous to the Dalmate Zone in the Dinarides and to the Gavrova Zone of the Hellenides. This zone consists of some elongated anticline structures of Cretaceous–Eocene carbonate cores of neritic limestone, dolomite limestone and dolomites covered by Oligocene flysch deposits. In the northern part of the zone, in the Tirana syncline, Tortonian molasse transgressively overlies flysch formations, while in the central part of the zone Burdigalian pre-molasse transgresses the flysch section. The carbonate section of the Kruja Zone plunges down to 10 km, where it is underlain by Triassic-Permian evaporate rocks (Velaj 1999, 2002; Frashëri 2007). The Ionian Zone extends in the southwestern part of Albania and continues as the Hellenides. Over Permian–Triassic evaporate rocks, the oldest rocks of this zone, there is a thick sequence of Mesozoic–Eocene carbonate rocks, mainly limestone and some dolomite limestone and chert. The carbonate rocks are covered by Oligocene and Neogene flysch deposits. They form three anticline belts dissected by longitudinal tectonic faults along their western flanks.
The Sazani zone is an integral part of the Apulia platform. A thick Cretaceous–Eocene limestone and dolomite section, transgressively covered by marly Burdigalian deposits, builds this zone. The Peri-Adriatic Depression (PAD) covers a considerable part of the Ionian, Sazani and Kruja tectonic zones. This is a foredeep depression filled with Middle Miocene to Pliocene–Quaternary molasse, whose thickness increases from the southeast to the northeast, reaching 5000 m near the Adriatic Sea. Molasse deposits usually lie transgressively over older ones, like the carbonate and flysch formation, and build a two-stage tectonic setting.
Geothermal Regime
Geothermal field studies and geothermal energy evaluations in Albania are based on temperature logs of 84 oil and gas wells and 59 shallow boreholes. The geothermal regime of the Albanides is governed by regional tectonics, lithological compositions, local thermal properties of the rocks, and the Earth’s crust settings (Frashëri et al. 2004; Frashëri 2007).
The External Albanides, like the Dinarides, are characterized by a low geothermal gradient and the geothermal field features a relatively low temperature gradient (Fig. 2). The largest gradients are detected in the molasse anticline structures of PAD. The highest values of about 21.3 mK/m are observed in the Pliocene clay section (Frashëri et al. 2004, 2010; Frashëri 2007). Gradient decreases by about 10–29 % are observed in the carbonate anticline of structures in the Ionian Zone, where the gradient is mostly 15 mK/m. The lowest geothermal gradients, of 5 mK/m, are registered in the southern part of the Ionian Zone and in the Albanian Alps. Values of 7–11 mK/m are observed in a deep syncline belt of the Ionian and Kruja zones.
Modeling indicates that the gradient decreases at a depth of more than 20 km, which coincides with a crystalline basement top (Frashëri et al. 2004). Along the ophiolitic belt of the Mirdita Zone, geothermal gradients increase to 36 mK/m in the northeastern and southeastern parts of Albania (Fig. 2).
The maximal heat flow density of 42 mW/m2 is observed in the center of PAD of the External Albanides. In the ophiolitic belt of the eastern part of Albania, heat flow density values are up to 60 mW/m2. Increasing heat flow over the ophiolitic belt is linked with heat flow from granites of the crystal basement. There are some heat flow anomalies, which are conditioned by intensive heat transmission through deep faults.
Thermal Water Provinces
Albania’s complex geological, structural and geomorphological conditions have resulted in the formation of heterogeneous aquifers with regard to their hydraulic type, resources, hydrodynamics and hydro-chemical characteristics (Eftimi 2010). Among them there are some deep aquifers related to different rocks like evaporate, carbonate and molasse, which host thermal waters. Most important data on thermal springs and deep wells are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
Thermal waters of Albania are localized in four thermal water provinces: Korab, Kruja, PAD Basin and South Ionian Province; the main data on Albania’s thermal waters, summarized in Tables 1 and 2 and a Piper diagram (Fig. 3), are used for an initial classification of Albania’s thermal springs.
The Korab Province represents the central part of the Korab Zone, which is characterized by the presence of two tectonic windows (total surface area about 90 km2), where gypsum dome structures outcrop (Melo et al. 1991). Deep circulating groundwater in gypsum forms two important sulfur thermo-mineral springs known as Peshkopia Spa, at the southwestern tectonic contact of the gypsum with surrounding Paleogene flysch formations (Fig. 3). The formation of the springs is related to a deep fault developed along the Black Drin River (Xhomo et al. 2002; Melo 1986; Melo et al. 1991). The water is of the SO4–Ca-type, with elevated concentrations of Cl and HCO3 and temperatures from about 35 to 43.5 °C. These waters feature low total dissolved solids (TDS), about 4 g/L, and H2S of about 50 mg/L; the upward flow rate of the springs is about 23 l/s (Table 1). Shallow groundwater circulating in the gypsum deposits recharges a number of big cold sulfate springs (Fig. 4).
Calcium sulfate is formed by the dissolution of gypsum, according to the following reaction:
If oxygen is absent and reducing conditions prevail, sulfate may be reduced by organic matter to produce hydrogen sulfide (Feng’e et al. 2005; Reimann and Birke 2010):
−H2S result to be an indicator for the bacterial activities which are more active at higher temperature (Andrejchuk and Klimchouk 2001; Feng’e et al. 2005).
Kruja Province overlaps a homonymous tectonic zone and is the most interesting province in terms of quantity and quality of thermal waters. The Tirana syncline, which represents the northern part of the province, comprises an artesian basin that features two important aquifers with thermal waters. Mesozoic-Paleogene carbonates, which host the first aquifer, form several outcrops and some deep buried anticline structures tectonically overthrown to the west. The second aquifer is represented by Neogene molasse rocks, mostly consisting of thick sandstone layers whose thickness increases to the northwest, to the Adriatic Sea (Fig. 5).
Albania’s most important thermal springs are situated in Kruja Province, including Uji Bardhe near Mamuras, Llixha and Hidraj near Elbasan, and Holta, Permet and Leskoviku in southeastern Albania (Fig. 1).
Most of the springs emerge on the periphery of carbonate structures that recharge them, but Llixha and Hidraj springs rise along a supposed tectonic fault developed in Oligocene flysch formations (Fig. 6). The thermal water is formed in the Llixha anticline and moves upward along the tectonic fault developed in a Paleogene flysch formation over which an permeable olistolith horizon, about 20 m thick, facilitates ascending thermal water flow (Fig. 6).
As shown in Table 1, the springs are quite different with regard to their physical and chemical characteristics but two hydrochemical types prevail: Cl–SO4–Na–Ca and Cl–Na–Ca.
The Cl–SO4–Na–Ca type comprises the thermal waters of the central area of Kruja Province, where the large springs of Mamurras, Elbasan (Llixha) and Hidraj emerge, as well as the deep wells Ishmi 1b, Kozan 1, Shupal 1 and Galigat 2 (Fig. 7). Their temperature varies from 22.5 to 65 °C the TDS is about 2.2–14.6 g/L. The waters are generally rich in H2S, varying from 350 to 400 mg/L.
The maximal sulfide gas concentration of 1200 g/L is measured in the deep well Ishmi 1b. As the waters of this type are related to deep anticline structures, long groundwater circulation is assumed, which favors increases in Cl and Na concentrations. With regard to the enrichment of the waters with Ca and SO4, it appears to be attributable to two processes; (a) ascending SO4–Ca waters circulating in deep-seated evaporite deposits, and (b) pyrite oxidation according to the reaction (Appelo and Postma 1999; Reimann and Birke 2010):
Both processes are possible. The presence of evaporite rocks under the Mesozoic carbonate structure, backed by geological studies (Velaj 1995), facilitates sulfate hypogenic speleogenesis, allowing the transfer of hot water to springs. The second process is facilitated by the presence of pyrite crystals in the carbonate structures of Kruja Province (Eftimi 1998).
Thermal springs in the southernmost part of Kruja Province, specifically Permet and Leskovik, are of the Cl–Na–Ca-type (with elevated HCO3 concentrations). They are characterized by low H2S concentrations, varying from about 4 to 6 g/L. Temperatures vary from 26 to 31 °C. The groundwaters are fresh; TDS is about 1.0–1.6 g/L.
At some big springs of Kruja Province, like Mamurras and Permet, ascending thermal flows mix with shallow cold groundwater, resulting in significantly differing physical and chemical properties.
The molasse aquifer lies above the carbonate and flysch deposits and consists of an intercalation of sandstone, siltstone, and claystone deposits of Aquitanian to Serravallian age. As the active porosity of Neogene sandstone aquiferous rocks is generally low, the capacity of the wells is very small, usually less than 1.0 l/s (Eftimi 2003), and the temperature is generally lower than 25 °C down to a depth about 1000 m. A particular geothermal phenomenon of this province is the Postenan steam spring, issuing from a tectonic fault crossing the Postenan limestone anticline structure, but its characteristics have not yet been investigated.
Identified geothermal resources of Kruja Province, in carbonate reservoirs, are 5.9 × 108–5.1 × 109 GJ (Frashëri et al. 2004, 2007). Exploitable thermal water resources of Kruja Province could be increased, by drilling boreholes to tap thermal water structures at a suitable depth, which would mostly vary from about 500 to 1000 m.
The groundwaters of Kruja Province, particularly those of the well-known Llixha and Hidraj spas, but also of the deep wells Ishmi 1b and Kozan 2, are widely used in balneotherapy owing to their excellent curative properties.
Peri-Adriatic Basin Province (PABP) is a huge artesian basin, deepening to the NW under the Adriatic Sea. Three important aquifers have been identified in this basin: the deepest aquifer is that of carbonate rocks; the intermediate aquifer consists of sandstone Neogene molasse, and the upper aquifer is comprised of Pliocene sandstone–conglomerate formations.
The carbonate rock aquifer is tapped by deep wells located only on the southern periphery of the basin, mainly in the Patos–Verbas area. The highest water temperature of 50 °C is measured in well Bubullima 5, free flowing from the tapped depth interval of 2355–2425 m. Generally, the groundwater of this aquifer is highly mineralized and with a clear tendency to increase with depth, from about 1–3 g/L at depths around 1000 m to about 40–90 g/L at depths around 2000–2500 m. The water type is Cl–Na (Shtrepi 1971). With regard to gases, the presence of CH4 and H2S is evidenced but their concentrations have not been measured.
The Neogene molasse aquifer is tapped by deep wells located mostly in oil and gas fields. The total thickness of the Neogene molasse increases to the NW and along the Adriatic Sea coast it is about 5000 m. Thermal waters are localized mainly in Tortonian sediments, such as sandstone and conglomerates. Particularly significant are the free–flowing wells of Ardenica and Seman structures located in the central part of PABP (Table 2). The groundwater temperature of Ardenica wells varies from 32 to 38 °C and TDS from 38 to 56 g/L. In well Seman 3 (at the Adriatic Sea water line), the free-flowing groundwater temperature is 67 °C and according to calculations the temperature in the aquifer at a depth of 3758 m is around 100 °C. The chemical water type is Cl–Na and TDS is around 20 g/L. The thermal water tapped by the deep wells in PABP is rich in CH4 gas, but the presence of H2S has also been confirmed. Usually the water has a high content of Br and J, whose concentrations vary from 20 to 85 mg/L for Br and from 20 to more than 120 mg/L for J.
The formation of the Cl–Na-type thermal waters is related to groundwater metamorphism, due to long water-rock interaction mechanisms, and to the release of marine sedimentary water from the pores of the rocks in high pressure conditions.
The third PABP aquifer is related to the upper part of Pliocene deposits (Rrogozhina formation), with a maximal thickness about 750 m, consisting mostly of sandstone and conglomerate layers. The groundwater of the Rrogozhina formation is usually fresh to low mineralized, hard, with increased Fe concentrations and is of the HCO3–Mg-type. Down to the maximal investigated depth of around 400 m, the water temperature is about 18 °C.
South Ionian Province is the largest thermal water province in Albania, but not the richest. This province consists of a number of Mesozoic carbonate anticline and syncline chains, filled mainly with Paleogene flysch formations, dipping to the NW, under the Peri-Adriatic Basin. The presence of thermal springs has not been identified in this province; there are only big fresh water springs and springs like Banjo Kapaj whose is temperature is 17.5 °C. Some deep oil and gas wells located in the northernmost part of the province discharge free-flowing, high temperature and highly mineralized groundwater. Among them the most important is well Grekan-4, situated in the eastern periphery of the Dumre gypsum dome. This well spurts groundwater from a depth of about 1200 m; the groundwater temperature is 35 °C, TDS about 325 g/L, and bromine concentration about 768 mg/L. Some deep wells drilled in the Delvina syncline, in South Albania, also discharge highly-mineralized groundwater of the Cl–Na-type.
Geothermometry
According to the results reported in geothermal studies of Albania, the temperature at a depth of 500 m is between 21 and 24 °C. The highest temperatures, up to 36 °C at 1000 m and 105.8 °C at 6000 m, have been measured in some deep PADP boreholes. The same temperatures have also been recorded in some boreholes in the ophiolitic belt. The lowest temperatures were measured in the mountainous regions of the Mirdita Zone, as well as in the Albanian Alps, where there is intensive circulation of cold karstic descending water whose temperature is less than 8 °C. The same occurs around huge karst massifs in South Albania, where zero gradients are measured in some deep boreholes, like Kalcat, which is about 2000 m deep (Frashëri et al. 2004).
Geothermometers are used to provide an indication of temperatures in geothermal reservoirs. It is a known fact that geothermometers measure different aquifer temperatures at same sampling points (Kharaka et al. 1989). This is supported by the results of aquifer temperature calculations for some thermal springs of Albania (Table 3). The mean estimated temperatures of all thermal springs, as calculated by Na, K and Ca geothermometers, are similar and vary between 197 and 230 °C. Based on geothermal modeling, one can suppose that thermal waters rise from depths of about 8-10 km, with temperatures as high as 220 °C (Frashëri et al. 2004).
Conclusions
The geothermal regime of the Albanides is governed by regional tectonics, lithological compositions, local thermal properties of the rocks, and the Earth’s crust settings. Albania in general is characterized by low geothermal gradients. The main hydrogeological and hydrochemical characteristics of the thermal waters of Albania are presented in the paper. Four thermal water provinces, with well-defined chemical characteristics, are distinguished. Geological–structural, thermal and hydrochemical characteristics are described for each province.
Korab Province is characterized by the presence of H2S thermal waters of the SO4–Ca type, whose temperature is 43 °C. Kruja Province is the richest in thermal waters of the Cl–SO4–Na–Ca and Cl–Na–Ca-types; H2S concentrations are usually greater than 250 mg/L. Most PADP thermal waters are highly mineralized, of the Na–Cl type, with CH4 and H2S gases, and usually with high Br and J concentrations. South Ionian Province is the poorest in thermal water, but near the Dumre gypsum dome high–temperature Cl–Na thermal water with a bromine content of about 768 mg/L is tapped at a depth 1200 m.
The highest measured thermal water temperature in Albania is 83 °C, but the aquifer temperature calculated by means of geothermometers is greater than 200 °C.
Albania’s thermal water resources are used by some health spas, like the well-known spas of Peshkopi, Elbasan, Hidraj and Bilaj. Their exploitable resources could be increased by drilling boreholes.
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Eftimi, R., Frashëri, A. (2016). Thermal Waters of Albania. In: Papic, P. (eds) Mineral and Thermal Waters of Southeastern Europe. Environmental Earth Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25379-4_7
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