Abstract
In the 1960s the once discarded theory of continental drift proposed by Alfred Lothar Wegener was substantially revised and transformed into the modern standard theory of global plate tectonics. For a decade or so the new theory of the Earth and the traditional contraction theory faced competition from a third alternative, the hypothesis of the expanding Earth. As early as 1952 Jordan had suggested Earth expansion on the basis of decreasing gravity, and a few years later the suggestion was taken up by several physicists and earth scientists. Dicke seriously applied his skills in fundamental physics to a broad range of geophysical problems, including a possible increase in the Earth’s radius. The Hungarian geophysicist László Egyed was not only a leading figure in the expansionist alternative but also an advocate of varying gravity as the cause of the growing Earth. Other geologists and geophysicists in favour of the expanding Earth preferred to present their chosen theory in purely empirical terms, without considering the cause of the expansion.
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Notes
- 1.
The literature includes Hallam (1973), Menard (1986), Le Grand (1988), Oreskes (1999), and Frankel (2012a).
- 2.
See Wood (1985), pp. 71–76.
- 3.
Wegener (1966), p. 167.
- 4.
Holmes (1925), p. 531.
- 5.
Jordan (1955, p. 226, 1971, p. 72). On early Earth expansionism, see Carey (1988), pp. 137–141, and Nunan (1998).
- 6.
Hilgenberg may have borrowed the idea of ether sinks from the British mathematician and philosopher Karl Pearson, who in the 1890s developed a theory of matter and ether based on “squirts” and “sinks.” See Kragh (2011), pp. 39–40.
- 7.
Scalera and Braun (2003).
- 8.
The expansion theory of the Earth is discussed in relation to plate tectonics in, for example, Le Grand (1988), pp. 193–195, Menard (1986), pp. 142–151, and Oldroyd (1996), pp. 273–278. From a more philosophical than historical perspective the theory is dealt with in Nunan (1988), whereas Nunan (1998) provides a concise summary of the history of the hypothesis. Sudiro (2014) focuses on expansion theory’s degeneration in recent time into what he argues, probably correctly, is a pseudoscience. Holmes (1965) includes a useful semi-historical chapter (pp. 960–994) on the hypothesis. Carey (1976, pp. 23–38, 1988) are informative if partisan accounts of the development of earth expansionism. See also the (no less partisan) bibliography in Scalera and Jacob (2003), pp. 419–421. The most detailed and scholarly work on the subject is contained in Henry Frankel’s four-volume work on the history of plate tectonics, see Frankel (2012b), especially pp. 278–354. Other histories of plate tectonics tend to ignore the expanding Earth. For example, the theory is not mentioned in Oreskes (2001), a collection of essays written by participants in the plate tectonics revolution.
- 9.
Quoted in Frankel (2012c), p. 417.
- 10.
Carey (1975), p. 134.
- 11.
Irving, in a review of Carey (1976) appearing in Tectonophysics 45 (1978): 241–242.
- 12.
Carey (1958) discussed his expansion hypothesis in the proceedings of the Hobart symposium, which was however only published two years after the symposium itself. There are reasons to believe that he did not discuss the issue in his talk and that his conversion thus took place a little later. See Frankel (2012c), pp. 322–335.
- 13.
Carey (1958), p. 346.
- 14.
Carey (1983), p. 181.
- 15.
Carey (1958), p. 349.
- 16.
Jordan (1964), p. 111. See also Jordan (1971), pp. 9–10, where he discussed the question, “Why should the Earth, a single planet among the many millions of celestial bodies in the Milky Way, be a decisive test object for a fundamental physical law?”
- 17.
Goenner (2012). Jordan’s Nazi past may also have played a role.
- 18.
Dicke (1957a, b). McVittie’s review appeared in Proceedings of the Physical Society (London) A 66 (1953): 667–668, and McCrea’s in Nature 172 (1953): 3–4. Strangely, McCrea wrote about the G(t) hypothesis that it “was once briefly suggested and later discarded by Dirac.” He probably meant the N(t) hypothesis of spontaneous creation of matter. An extensive English review of Jordan’s theory appeared in Brill (1962). Noting that Jordan’s theory “has so far not received any great attention,” Harrison (1963) referred to Jordan (1949, 1952).
- 19.
See Schucking (1999) and Ehlers and Schücking (2002). These sources give some background on Jordan and the roots of his theories of gravitation and the expanding Earth.
- 20.
Jordan (1955), p. vi and p. 223.
- 21.
Jordan (1971), p. x.
- 22.
Beyler (1996). On Jordan’s philosophy of science and general world view, see Jordan (1963), a popular book which includes sections on varying gravity and the expanding Earth. See also Kragh (2004), pp. 175–185 and Beyler (2009). Beyler (1994) deals with Jordan’s biological and cosmological work in the post-World War II period, but does not mention his extensive work on the expanding Earth and other aspects of geophysics.
- 23.
Jordan (1971), p. xi. Referring to geologists and geophysicists, Jordan claimed on p. 141 that “[it is] the practice of many authors first to put forward a definite theory … and then to discuss the empirical facts in terms of this theory.” This procedure he much disliked because it “cannot produce conclusions derived unambiguously and logically from the existing foundations.”
- 24.
Jordan (1971), p. 10. See also Jordan et al. (1964), p. 506. The eminent geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson noted the different research styles of physicists and geologists in their studies of the Earth, but he viewed them in a different light than Jordan. “Physicists’ generalizations have tended to be too sweeping and geologists’ too detailed,” he wrote. Wilson (1963b), p. 864.
- 25.
Jordan (1973), p. 61. On Jordan’s lack of respect for the geological literature, see also Jordan (1969b), p. 260.
- 26.
Pauli (1996), p. 736.
- 27.
Letter of 17 December 1952, in Pauli (1996), p. 800. For “the American Fisher,” see below.
- 28.
Bullen (1949). On Bullen’s work on the core of the Earth, see Brush (1996c), pp. 198–202.
- 29.
Jordan (1952), p. 198.
- 30.
Jordan (1955), p. vi and p. 226.
- 31.
Jordan (1961a), p. 417. Jordan referred in some of his writings, for example Jordan (1961b), to discussions with Fisher.
- 32.
Obituaries of Fisher appeared in Alpina Americana Journal 15 (1966): 115–116 and Alpine Journal 71 (1966): 190. These sources can be found online as http://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/12196611500/Joel-Ellis-Fisher-1891-1966 and http://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_1966_files/AJ%201966%20190-198%20In%20Memoriam.pdf. To my knowledge, the Jordan–Fisher connection has never been noted in either the scientific or historical literature.
- 33.
For some of Fisher’s publications and abstracts, see King et al. (1965), p. 537, which includes an abstract titled “Arguments for a solid core of the Earth at 0° K.”
- 34.
See Jordan (1955), p. 223.
- 35.
See http://www.presidentialufo.com/wilbert-smith-articles/131-gravity-day-1960. For the history and activities of GRF, see http://www.gravityresearchfoundation.org/ and also DeWitt and Rickles (2011), pp. 7–15.
- 36.
Jordan (1954).
- 37.
- 38.
Jordan (1962a, b, c), p. 599. See also Jordan (1971), pp. 72–75.
- 39.
- 40.
Jordan (1969a), p. 55. On the hypsographical problem as a motivation for Jordan’s ideas of the expanding Earth, see also Jordan (1969b), pp. 262–263.
- 41.
Jordan (1962b), p. 287. Sima, an older name derived from silicon and magnesium, denotes the lower layer of the Earth’s crust composed of basaltic rock. It lies below the granitic shell that forms the foundation of the continental masses and is known as sial (from silicon and aluminum).
- 42.
Wegener (1966), p. 37, an English translation of the fourth edition of Wegener’s classic Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane first published in 1915.
- 43.
Joksch (1955).
- 44.
Scheidegger (1958), p. 9 and p. 157.
- 45.
Jordan (1955), p. 228.
- 46.
- 47.
Jordan (1971), p. 95. Jordan also believed that the (in)famous “canals” on Mars were real and that they were due to expansion of the planet. Jordan (1961b), p. 20.
- 48.
Gerstenkorn (1957). See also Brush (1996c), pp. 200–202.
- 49.
Jordan et al. (1964), p. 513, Jordan (1971), p. 106.
- 50.
- 51.
Binge (1962), Jordan (1971), pp. 120–121.
- 52.
See Jordan (1966), p. 100 and also Jordan (1971), pp. 118.
- 53.
For Binge’s contributions to astrophysics, see Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A 6 (1951): 49–53, 7 (1952): 440–444, and 11 (1956): 874.
- 54.
- 55.
- 56.
Jordan (1964), p. 115.
- 57.
Jordan et al. (1964), pp. 516–518.
- 58.
- 59.
Jordan (1961b), p. 16.
- 60.
Jordan (1971), p. 92.
- 61.
Jordan et al. (1964), p. 508, Jordan (1961b). Emphasis added.
- 62.
Jordan (1959b), p. 795.
- 63.
Jordan (1963), p. 282.
- 64.
Jordan (1962a), p. 600.
- 65.
Kundt (2007).
- 66.
See Jordan (1934), an essay on the positivist concept of reality in which he concluded that “the method of positivism is nothing but the scientific method in its purest form.”
- 67.
Jordan (1938).
- 68.
Jordan (1971), p. 15.
- 69.
Jordan (1971), p. 19.
- 70.
Jordan (1937), p. 515.
- 71.
Jordan (1962a). On the other hand, in a German review article from the same time he did add a list of references. See Jordan (1961a).
- 72.
Beyler (1994), pp. 485–495.
- 73.
Wesson (1973), p. 25.
- 74.
Menard (1986), p. 144 and p. 316 erroneously states that Jordan’s book on the expanding Earth dates from 1952 and was translated into English in 1966, which he considers an indication of “the intensity of interest in the expansion hypothesis during the plate tectonic revolution.” He evidently mixed up the first edition of Schwerkraft and Jordan’s later Die Expansion der Erde. In 1966 there was indeed a great deal of interest in the expanding Earth hypothesis, but Jordan’s book attracted only very limited attention.
- 75.
Jordan (1971), p. 145. Jordan referred to a work on the dynamics of the Earth from the viewpoint of the G(t) hypothesis that Glashoff had published in the proceedings of the Mainz Academy. See Glashoff (1966).
- 76.
Tarling and Tarling (1971), p. 84.
- 77.
- 78.
The German 1966 edition was reviewed in Tectonophysics 4 (1967): 117–120 by Hans Georg Wunderlich, a professor of geology at Göttingen University. Although Tectonophysics was an English-language journal, the review was in German. The English translation of Jordan’s book was reviewed by the Manchester astronomer Michael Moutsoulas in Geoexploration 11 (1973): 197–198.
- 79.
- 80.
Frankel (2012b), pp. 278–354 deals extensively and scholarly with Earth expansionism without mentioning Jordan or his books. Jordan is also absent from the review of expanding Earth theories in Nunan (1998). Jordan's book of 1966 appears in the bibliography of Sudiro (2014), but there is no mention of Jordan in the review article itself. The same is the case with Nunan (1988).
- 81.
Dicke (1962a), p. 664 and Dicke (1961b), p. 106.
- 82.
For details, see Frankel (2012c), pp. 280–319.
- 83.
Interview by Spencer Weart of 18 November 1975, the Niels Bohr Library and Archives, the American Institute of Physics. See http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/31508.html
- 84.
Carey (1988), p. 119 and p. 141.
- 85.
- 86.
Morgan et al. (1961). Morgan and Stoner were at the time National Science Foundation pre-doctoral fellows working with Dicke’s gravity group in Princeton. For a later attempt to link the periodicity of earthquakes to the variation of G, see De Sabatta and Rizzati (1977).
- 87.
Frankel (2012d), pp. 474–475. Elsasser, who originally worked in atomic and quantum theory, had known Dirac since the late 1920s. In an appendix to a paper of 1971 Elsasser dealt with the geological effects of Dirac’s G(t) hypothesis which “appeared a few decades after [before?] the confidence of earth scientists in the ancient contraction (‘shrinking apple’) model of mountain building had begun to be shaken.” Although Elsasser found the hypothesis of gravity-driven Earth expansion to be interesting, he did not support it. See Elsasser (1971).
- 88.
Schultz (2003).
- 89.
AIP interview of 18 June 1985. http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/4572.html
- 90.
Dicke (1961c), p. 797.
- 91.
Le Grand (1988), pp. 80–96, Frankel (1976).
- 92.
Dicke (1962a), p. 664. See also Dicke (1964b), p. 173.
- 93.
On theories of the formation of the Moon, see the careful account in Brush (1996c).
- 94.
Shahiv and Bahcall (1969).
- 95.
Dicke (1957a), p. 361.
- 96.
AIP interview, http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/31508.html
- 97.
Dicke (1962a), p. 660, Murphy and Dicke (1964).
- 98.
Dicke seems at the time to have been undecided with regard to the physical state of the inner core. In Dicke (1962a, 1964b) he stated that the inner core was solid, but in other of his publications from the same time he expressed doubts about Bullen’s evidence for a solid inner core, which he judged to be marginal. The turning point in the acceptance of the solid inner core only occurred in the late 1960s. See Brush (1996a), p. 201.
- 99.
Murphy and Dicke (1964), p. 243.
- 100.
Dicke (1962a). For the Earth as a heat engine, see also Scheidegger (1958), pp. 55–57, who quoted the average heat flow to be about 1.2 × 10−6 cal s−1 cm−2 or 50 erg s−1 cm−2.
- 101.
Von Herzen (1967), p. 213.
- 102.
On the problem of mantle convection, see Oldroyd (1996), pp. 255–257, and Le Grand (1988), pp. 112–117.
- 103.
Jordan (1966), pp. 80–83, Jordan et al. (1964), p. 507.
- 104.
- 105.
- 106.
Peebles and Dicke (1962a).
- 107.
- 108.
Peebles et al. (2009), p. 185.
- 109.
Dicke and Peebles (1965).
- 110.
Interview by Spencer Weart of 18 November 1975, the Niels Bohr Library and Archives, the American Institute of Physics. http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/31508.html. Freeman Dyson echoed Dicke’s sentiment. “Until geophysics becomes an exact science,” he wrote, it would be impossible to relate the past temperature of the Earth or the heat flow through the Earth’s crust in an unambiguous way to a decrease in G. See Dyson (1972), p. 230.
- 111.
The problem of the Sun’s oblateness goes back to 1865, when Simon Newcomb tried to explain the Mercury anomaly that was later solved by Einstein. For an overview of the history, see Rozelot et al. (2010).
- 112.
- 113.
Morgan et al. (1961), Dicke (1962a). Copies of Hess’ thesis work may no longer be extant. I am grateful to George Hess for having confirmed the authorship of the 1958 thesis (E-mail of 15 January 2015). George Hess took his Ph.D. from Stanford in 1967 on experiments with liquid helium. He subsequently became a professor of physics at the University of Virginia, where he mostly worked in condensed matter physics.
- 114.
Dicke (1964b), p. 162.
- 115.
Dicke (1962a) and similarly in Murphy and Dicke (1964), p. 226: “If substantial continental drift associated with subcrustal currents should occur, it seems likely that the effects of a small expansion would be masked by the larger effects produced by these currents.”
- 116.
Dicke (1961b), p. 105. The abbreviations “m.y.” and “b.y.” refer to million years and billion years, respectively.
- 117.
Jordan to Dicke, 2 July 1966, and Dicke to Jordan, 7 July 1966. Robert H. Dicke papers, box 4, folder 4, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library. I am grateful to J. Peebles for providing me with copies of the letters.
- 118.
Egyed (1963). For a brief biographical account, see Meskó (1971).
- 119.
Menard (1986), p. 144.
- 120.
- 121.
- 122.
Scheidegger (1958), p. 11, Armstrong (1969), Hallam (1971).
- 123.
Dietz (1967), p. 236, who referred to Egyed (1961b). He did not comment on Egyed’s argument for the expanding Earth in terms of decreasing gravity.
- 124.
Termier and Termier (1969), p. 101. Emphasis added.
- 125.
Ramsey (1949).
- 126.
Jordan (1962b), p. 288. On the fate of Ramsey’s theory, see Brush (1996a), pp. 209–213 and Doel (1996), pp. 97–98.
- 127.
Egyed (1957), p. 106 and p. 101.
- 128.
Scheidegger (1958), pp. 204–205.
- 129.
Egyed (1960a), p. 253. On Gilbert’s claim as argued in Gilbert (1956), see also Sect. 2.3.
- 130.
Egyed (1960c). According to the Titius–Bode law, often referred to as just Bode’s law, the radii of the planets follow a simple relation given by the number of the planet as counted from the Sun. Today the “law” is generally considered a rule or mathematical coincidence with no theoretical foundation. The name relates to two German astronomers, Johann Daniel Titius (1764) and Johann Elert Bode (1772).
- 131.
Letter to Arthur Holmes of 31 July 1959, quoted in Frankel (2012c), p. 285, where Holmes’ favourable evaluation of the expanding Earth and the G(t) hypothesis is documented. See also Holmes (1965), pp. 983–987.
- 132.
Carey (1976), p. 451. Theoretical physicists seem to have ignored Gilbert’s claim. Among the few who responded to it was Wesson (1973), who found parts of Gilbert’s reasoning to be “obscure” and even “somewhat perverse.”
- 133.
Jordan (1962b), p. 287.
- 134.
- 135.
Egyed (1965), p. 100. Translation of Hungarian paper originally published in 1960.
- 136.
- 137.
- 138.
- 139.
Fairbridge (1966), p. 143.
- 140.
Fairbridge (1964). On Fairbridge’s view and its basis in the climate of the ancient Earth, see also Sect. 3.6.
- 141.
Lubimova (1967), p. 310. Scheidegger (1958), pp. 154–155, admitted the possibility that thermal processes might cause a slight expansion of the Earth but not that such processes were realistic. The question of a thermal expansion of the Earth was also examined by Paul Reitan, a Norwegian geologist, who concluded that temperature changes could have caused an increase in radius of at most 5 km during the last billion years. See Reitan (1960).
- 142.
Ranalli (1971).
- 143.
Egyed (1961b), p. 427.
- 144.
Egyed (1969b), p. 279.
- 145.
Wells (1963).
- 146.
Scrutton (1965).
- 147.
Egyed (1969b), p. 278.
- 148.
Jordan (1971), p. 115.
- 149.
Holmes (1965), pp. 972–975.
- 150.
Wells (1966).
- 151.
Runcorn (1967), p. 11.
- 152.
Runcorn (1964). See also Frankel (2012d), pp. 224–232.
- 153.
Runcorn (1967), p. 11.
- 154.
See Barton (2002) on the Heezen–Tharp collaboration.
- 155.
Menard (1986), p. 149.
- 156.
Frankel (2012b), pp. 393–427.
- 157.
Heezen (1962), p. 283.
- 158.
Heezen (1960), p. 110.
- 159.
- 160.
Holmes (1965), pp. 983–987.
- 161.
Scheidegger (1976), p. 103. Oscillating models of the kind described by Scheidegger were discussed by several astronomers and cosmologists but were generally seen as somewhat speculative as many-cycle models could not be justified by the equations of general relativity. Moreover, they presupposed space to be closed, which lacked observational evidence.
- 162.
So did a few other geologists, see for example Stewart (1970), p. 413.
- 163.
Egyed (1961b), p. 432, referred to a personal communication from Holmes and stated that Holmes had in this way estimated an expansion rate of 0.4 mm per year.
- 164.
Holmes (1965), p. 967.
- 165.
Holmes (1965), p. 983.
- 166.
- 167.
Kapp (1960), p. 243.
- 168.
- 169.
- 170.
See details in Frankel (2012d), pp. 3–50. According to “Planck’s principle” as used by Thomas Kuhn and some sociologists of science, radical scientific change—from one paradigm to another—is a non-rational event reserved for scientists of a young age. Older scientists are supposed to stick to the established paradigm until they pass away. The principle has many exceptions, though, one of them being J. Tuzo Wilson, who was 53 years old when he turned to continental drift. Another example is Carey, who at the age of 45 changed to the expanding Earth after having defended continental drift for two decades. On Planck’s principle, a name that derives from the autobiography of Max Planck, see Blackmore (1978).
- 171.
Wilson (1960), p. 882.
- 172.
Dicke (1959a), Wilson (1959), Menard (1986), p. 173.
- 173.
Wilson (1963a).
- 174.
Wilson (1963b), p. 864.
- 175.
Handbuch der Physik, vol. 47 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1956), p. 390
- 176.
- 177.
Schwarzschild (1958), p. 207.
- 178.
- 179.
- 180.
- 181.
Schwarzschild et al. (1958), p. 241.
- 182.
Fairbridge (1964), p. 83, who seems to have been unaware of the Schwarzschild–Howard–Härm paper.
- 183.
Eichendorf and Reinhardt (1977), p. 537. Eichendorf and Reinhardt did not refer to either Fairbridge or Schwarzschild.
- 184.
Sagan and Mullen (1972). For a detailed review of the faint young Sun problem, see Feulner (2012).
- 185.
- 186.
See Tomaschitz (2005), according to whom “The age of the universe has a substantial imprint on planetary paleoclimatology.”
- 187.
- 188.
Irving (1964), p. 292.
- 189.
- 190.
Holmes (1965), p. 209 and Jordan (1971), p. 92. See also Frankel (2012c), p. 230.
- 191.
Ward (1963).
- 192.
- 193.
Van Hilten (1964, p. 61, 1965). Tectonophysics, subtitled International Journal of Geotectonics and the Geology and Physics of the Interior of the Earth, was established in 1964 by the Elsevier publishing company with the aim of promoting greater cooperation between geologists and geophysicists. Its editorial board included W. Brian Harland (Cambridge), S. Keith Runcorn (Newcastle) and J. Tuzo Wilson (Toronto).
- 194.
Hospers and Van Andel (1967). Van Andel earned his doctoral degree from Amsterdam University in 1968 with a dissertation on “A Test of Earth Expansion Hypotheses by Means of Paleomagnetic Data.”
- 195.
Van Andel and Hospers (1968), Hospers and Van Andel (1970).
- 196.
See Frankel (2012d), pp. 162–170.
- 197.
Tozer (1965), p. 253.
- 198.
Bullen (1975), p. 345.
- 199.
- 200.
Creer (1965a), p. 539.
- 201.
Creer (1965b), who seems to have misunderstood the Hoyle–Narlikar theory, which did not, in fact, operate with a varying G. On Hoyle’s later ideas, see Sect. 4.1.
- 202.
Creer (1965a), p. 543. For Dicke’s view see Dicke (1961b, 1962a) as discussed in Sect. 2.7.
- 203.
Dietz (1967), p. 235. For Dietz’s dismissal of Egyed’s theory, see Sect. 3.4.
- 204.
Dearnley (1965).
- 205.
Dearnley (1966), p. 32.
- 206.
- 207.
- 208.
Birch (1968).
- 209.
Yabushita (1984).
- 210.
Meservey (1969), with references to Dirac, Carey, Egyed, Heezen and Wilson. As usual in the English-language literature, Meservey did not refer to Jordan.
- 211.
Machado (1967).
- 212.
Schneiderov (1943), Carey (1988), p. 145. In Schneiderov’s theory the gravitational constant G might be a variable quantity but in a completely different way than in Dirac’s G(t) theory. Schneiderov’s ideas about gravitation were pre-Einstein and had no impact at all on later developments in either cosmology or geophysics. For pulsating-Earth ideas in Soviet Russia, see Sect. 4.4.
- 213.
Fairbridge (1964), p. 60.
- 214.
For geological pulsation hypotheses, see Oldroyd (1996), pp. 182–188.
- 215.
Levitt (1980), p. 24. The picture of the big bang as an explosion of an original mass consisting of neutrons was part of Gamow’s theory in the late 1940s, but in 1980 it was obsolete.
- 216.
Chow (1981), p. 120. An earlier proposal of a steady contraction of the Earth, but without basing it on an increasing gravitational constant, can be found in Kapp (1960). The notion of a contracting Earth was also defended by R. Lyttleton, see Sect. 4.1.
- 217.
Wesson (1970).
- 218.
Wesson (1972), p. 185.
- 219.
Wesson (1973), p. 43.
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Kragh, H. (2016). The Expanding Earth. In: Varying Gravity. Science Networks. Historical Studies, vol 54. Birkhäuser, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24379-5_3
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