Abstract
The South American tropical forest is embedded in key research areas for both the social and the natural sciences. The path towards a more sustainable future for the Amazon rainforest includes a discussion not only about its role in the climate change debate, but also about how to improve the livelihoods of those who depend on the forest. Stopping deforestation can potentially address the two of them. In this scenario, the Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation—REDD—emerges as a promising approach. This chapter presents a discussion on the future of the Amazon, focusing on the role of the forest in the sustainable development debate and in the climate change regime, and on the lessons that can be learn from terra preta de índio.
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Notes
- 1.
I will focus on the Amazon rainforest rather than all rainforests.
- 2.
Payment for sequestrating carbon into the soil is one of these services.
- 3.
There is a discussion on the relationship between ecodevelopment and sustainable development. My idea here is not to get in this debate but to talk about the events that took place and the definition of sustainable development.
- 4.
http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm#I Our Common Future (Accessed on October 17, 2014).
- 5.
Some argue that the attention is turned to future generations, leaving the debate about the present scarce and empty (Goodland and Daily 1996).
- 6.
http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm (Accessed on October 17, 2014).
- 7.
One example of this way of dealing with the concept is the UK Sustainable Development Strategy (Connelly 2007).
- 8.
Examples of this approach are many, such as the different interpretation of sustainable development in the disciplines that are concerned with it. Some authors focus on poverty and environment while others focus on industrial capitalism.
- 9.
Even Monsanto uses the concept of sustainable development.
- 10.
I do not disregard Brundtland’s definition of the concept, but I do think this definition is all-embracing, leaving the concept open to all that wish to take it on. I believe that development should be stressed more emphatically and its opposition to growth. The concept does necessarily imply a revision of the current development model and goes beyond the economic dimension. It refers to the development of a territory taking into consideration its specificities, re-organising the functioning of society within itself and with what surrounds it.
- 11.
It is important to notice that fallow period is motivated by the difficulty in managing weed and also due to a likely degradation in soil structure (Teixeira et al. 2009).
- 12.
I am not suggesting that environmental and ecological dimensions are the same. I am referring to the dimension that encompasses the ecological dimensions of the environment.
- 13.
Some of these observations refer to the fact that the concept of carrying capacity is formed by several elements, not a static concept; other observations refer to the fact that all activities have an impact on the environment and the uncertainty regarding the point of no return.
- 14.
There are two issues regarding knowledge in the region. One is institutional structure to stimulate it the other is the increase in communication between policy-makers and advisors. There is the need for a technical-scientific revolution in the region (Cgee 2009: 40; Costa et al. 2009: 38).
- 15.
That is not including boreal forests.
- 16.
One aspect that draws attention to REDD is the fact that it does not require new technology to be applied. It does require, however, technology for monitoring. Monitoring of REDD activities call for the ability to see how the land in question is being maintained as it was agreed. This implies the use of satellite imagery of high resolution. In addition the biomass loss due to land use change as well as the price of this change would have to be assessed. This is also related to what is understood as a forest, or how much cover is needed if it has to be secondary growth. How forests are defined depend on each country and this definition will be crucial in determining which forest is eligible to take part in REDD programmes.
- 17.
Reports such as Peskett L et al. “Making REDD work for the Poor. A Poverty Environment Partnership (PEP) Report”. September 2008; Angelsen A (ed.) “Moving Ahead with REDD: Issues, Options and Implications”. CIFOR-CGIAR, 2008; Bond, I. et al. “Incentives to Sustain Forest Ecosystem Services—A Review and Lessons for REDD”. International Institute for Environment and Development IIED, London, UK, with CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia, and World Resource Institute, Washington D.C., USA, 2009.
- 18.
It is estimated that land use change was responsible for the emission of 1.6 ± 0.8 Pg C per year in the 1990s (IPCC 2001).
- 19.
It is important to notice, however, that the focus of the study on biochar has shifted. In the beginning it was a proposal to improve the livelihoods of the farmers by improving the fertility of the soil. Now the main focus is on carbon credits and the impact on the livelihoods of the farmers was relegated to a second realm—if that.
- 20.
It is important to notice that biochar has been recognised as a soil amendment for a long time. The discussion on terra preta de índio brought it back to the centre of the debate regarding sustainable soil management and soil improvement.
- 21.
Pyrolysis is one amongst many technologies to produce energy from biomass, but what makes it stand out is the fact that it produces a solid by-product that is carbon-rich (Lehmann 2007b: 381).
- 22.
Tropical countries are not key players within the desertification debate. However, the movement of those countries are important to the humid tropics as its raises the debate on biochar and as more extreme weather is experienced, desertification might be an issue to the tropics. In Brazil, for example, the Northeast of the country is susceptible to desertification.
- 23.
Here I will use ecosystem services and environmental services interchangeably.
- 24.
Only carbon sequestration is increasing.
- 25.
Is this a scheme likely to succeed? The way that such proposal is being advocated by different groups suggests that many people do believe this is possible. However, the flaws of neoclassical economics are well-known.
- 26.
This could be argued for private land, but what about public land? Are governments going to be paid to enforce their Law?.
- 27.
Hardin’s work has been highly criticised, specially his definition of “commons”. Nonetheless, this metaphor explains the overconsumption of common-pool resources.
- 28.
Ronald Coase, an economist from the University of Virginia, wrote in 1960 an article entitled “The Problem of Social Cost” at the Journal of Law and Economics. Coase presents a critique to the Pigovian tradition, which he believes is socially inefficient. He explains that if A hurts B and then A has to stop doing whatever is hurting B, A will suffer. In this case B will hurt A. Therefore the right approach would be to analyse if A has the right to hurt B and vice versa. Without transactions costs, the externalities would be internalised and negotiations would take place. With transactions costs, the property rights have to be clear.
- 29.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment studied several understandings of the relationship between human well-being and ecosystems in the course of 5 years. A multi-scale system view was elaborated, which saw the ecosystems as natural capital that provided ecosystem services, which is a stock-flow model (Norgaard 2010: 1220). The elaboration of this design helped to raise key questions and to understand this relationship. However, this did not come without critiques and questions were raised regarding this framework.
- 30.
Payment for Ecosystem Services is the most talked approach for REDD (Sandbrook et al. 2010: 330).
- 31.
How the baseline will be defined is also important. If credits are based on historical rates of deforestation, depending on the year that is chosen, the credit will vary considerably. Moreover, deforestation varies greatly within countries, therefore the national average might not reflect a country’s real situation.
- 32.
It is important to notice that there is the National Plan for Climate Change but there is also the National Policy for Climate Change, which was sanctioned on 29 December 2009.
- 33.
The COP in Cancun was positive for REDD+.
- 34.
Leakage can be either within a country or between countries. Leakage within a country would be easier to deal with as the increase in deforestation rates would affect the total country rate. Leakage between countries, however, is a different issue. Who would be held responsible for the leakage? How to determine that the deforestation is actually leakage and not just a trend that would happen regardless of the REDD programme in a neighbouring country? How would this affect the country’s participation in REDD? These questions need to be answered.
- 35.
The carbon market is growing at an incredibly fast speed and it encompassed US$125 billion in 2008 (Stickler et al. 2009: 2804). This amount contrasts dramatically with the amount of money allocated to international conservation: US$1 billion per year on average in the 1990s. In the beginning of the 2000–2010, the amount decreased even further. The carbon market is projected to increase up to US$600 billion by 2013.
- 36.
The price difference reflects the differences land-uses in the region. In the state of Mato Grosso do Sul deforestation rates are higher than in the state of Amazonas.
- 37.
This argument challenges the idea that there will be a flood in carbon offer in the future due to REDD programmes, which would in turn bring the price of the carbon down, damaging its efficiency. These issues reflect the failure of the Kyoto Protocol, that first designed the commitments for reduction, which is the demand, and then designed the offer of activities that would be eligible to meet them (Corbera et al. 2010). The offer and the demand were not in sink and no one really knew how much carbon credits could be generated, which affects the carbon price in the market.
- 38.
This issue is intimately linked to the payment of REDD programmes.
- 39.
The answer to the question ‘paid by whom’ depends on the time of programme finance, but it would either be the government itself or another actor who is in charge of the programme.
- 40.
This statement might seem out of place when we look at the state of Amazonas, which has 98 % of its area undisturbed. This is because most of the population in that state lives in the capital, Manaus, an urban city in the middle of the Forest that has all the problems of an urban city: lack of sanitation, planning, violence and so on. Although the Forest in undisturbed, could anyone that has been to Manaus say that this is model of sustainable development for the region? The difference between the states within the legal Amazon highlight a point made earlier, that of the many AmazonS with the Forest. But yes, the fact that the state of Amazonas has most of its area undisturbed does not compromise the argument above.
- 41.
The prices of the international commodities, such as meat and soy, have gone down. How much will deforestation rise when the prices go up is a disputed issue.
- 42.
The dialogues did take place, but the extent to which they were done in a inclusive matter is disputed.
- 43.
Temporary measure No. 366 from April 26, 2007 and Law No. 11.516.
- 44.
MP is Provisional Measure, which is not yet a Law in Constitutional terms, as it was not discussed by the legislative. However, it is adopted and can be implemented.
- 45.
Both outside the Amazon.
- 46.
PPCDAM is the acronym in Portuguese of the Plan of Action for the Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon. The Plan emerged as an answer of the federal government to the increase rate of deforestation registered in the early 2000s. The PPCDAM was launched in 2004. The Plan is in its second phase (2009–2011).
- 47.
http://www.mma.gov.br/estruturas/sca/_arquivos/plano_amazonia_sustentavel.pdf Accessed on October 17, 2014.
- 48.
Cattle has been the main driver of deforestation and it accounts for about 75 % of the area deforested (Barreto and Silva 2010: 3).
- 49.
One could argue that that is the case unless REDD affects the price of the commodities. It is important to remember, however, that there are many illegal enterprises that work with wood and meat.
- 50.
Now the rate of deforestation decreased mainly in large areas. Deforestation in small areas remain roughly the same, but its share in the total amount of deforestation has increased due to the decreased of large scale deforestation.
- 51.
Dutch non-profit organisation.
- 52.
Inter-regional migration movements are now more prominent then migration between regions.
- 53.
That is not to say that small-holders did not benefit from the programmes. The drive of the programme came from the private sector.
- 54.
Another factor that can account for the decrease in the participation of small-holder farmers in the deforestation of the Amazon is urbanisation. Rather than going to the Northern region of the country to search for land, more and more people are going to urban cities.
- 55.
The correlation between food production and deforestation in the Amazon no longer exists. This is a recent event, which reflects the changes that occurred in the past five years. Despite the increase in production, in 2007–2008 deforestation went down and it was almost 75 % below the rate of 2004 (Tollefson 2010: 554). This is important as we try to understand the drivers of deforestation in the forest.
- 56.
It is important to highlight that there was great pressure in the meat packing industry in Brazil, which could have had an impact in the rate of deforestation. One should not forget, however, that one third of Brazilian slaughter houses were clandestine (Barreto and Silva 2010: 15).
- 57.
The tax breaks inserted in the loans from SUDAM persist to this day, although they ended in mid-1990s (Fearnside 2008: 11).
- 58.
It is important to notice that, while being the home to very poor people, these forests are also the home for rich land owners, who have large property and incomes. The gain that these people have in selling their products, be that nationally or internationally, have not been spread out through the region.
- 59.
Some public funds have already been established to support REDD activities, such as the World Carbon Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, which was established in 2007.
- 60.
Brazil has its own interests in supporting the fund-based approach, as it is expected that the country will be one of its most beneficiaries.
- 61.
The president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, referred to the international community as a whole. The government of Guyana was referring to the British government.
- 62.
The Fund was created in August of 2008 and the Plan was launched in December of the same year.
- 63.
A forest can be degraded for decades and not be totally deforested. Thus, tackling deforestation will not necessarily tackle degradation. Degradation is, as defined by the IPCC (IPCC 2003: 14) is the long-term loss of at least y% of forest carbon stocks (and forest values) since that is directly human induced by a certain amount of time and not be deforestation (Murdiyarso et al. 2008: 100). The activities that lead to degradation are: selective logging, large-scale and open forest fires, collecting non-timber forest products as well as wood for fuel, shifting cultivation, producing charcoal, grazing and sub-canopy fires. Degradation, however, is harder to define, as well as monitor and verify than deforestation.
- 64.
Between 2002 and 2006, properties above 20 ha accounted for 80 % of deforestation.
- 65.
Economists, policy-makers.
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Bezerra, J. (2015). The Sustainability Paradigm and the Future of the Amazon. In: The Brazilian Amazon. World Forests, vol 21. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23030-6_5
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