Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Organ Failure and Specialized Enteral Formulas

  • Chapter
Nutrition Support for the Critically Ill

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health ((NH))

  • 1524 Accesses

Abstract

Single or multiple organ failures characterize the critically ill patient. Hyperglycemia, often associated with diabetes, remains a major problem. Control of carbohydrate intake by substituting fat can improve glucose control, but may not influence outcome. Immune modulating formulas, containing pharmaconutrients such as anti-oxidants, omega-3 fatty acids, arginine, glutamine and certain vitamins, appear to diminish the inflammatory response. But clinical studies have been inconclusive. Formulas relatively high in branched chain amino acids have shown benefit in hepatic encephalopathy, but the evidence remains less than convincing. Adult respiratory distress syndrome accounts up to 10% of all intensive care admissions. The avoidance of overfeeding is especially important in these patients. Benefits of formulas containing omega-3 fatty acids and of high fat formulas in general remain uncertain. Over the years, a variety of both enteral and parenteral formulas have been advocated for diabetes mellitus, hepatic disease, acute lung failure, chronic lung disease, and acute kidney injury. Many of these are currently available, and are often highly promoted by academic advocates or by nutritional suppliers. A number of these may be useful in particular situations, but the evidence overall is often inconclusive.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. The ARDS Definition Task Force. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA. 2012;5:1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ruberfield G, Caldwell E, Peabody E, Weaver J, Martin DP, Neff M, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Cartes I, Penuelas O, Esteban A. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: evaluation and management. Minerva Antesiologica. 2011;78:343–57.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Trotter J. Practical management of acute liver failure in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2009;15:163–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Saliba F, Ichai P, Levesque E, Samuel D. Cirrhotic patients in the ICU: prognostic markers and outcome. Crit Care. 2013;19:154–60.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Lamiere N, Van BW, Vanholder R. The changing epidemiology of acute renal failure. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2006;2:364–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Uchino S, Kellum BR, Doig GS, Morimatsu H, Morgera S, et al. Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a multinational, multicenter study. JAMA. 2005;294:813–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Matarese LE. Rationale and efficacy of specialized enteral and parenteral formulas. In: Matarese LE, Gottschlich MM, editors. Contemporary nutrition support practice: a clinical guide. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1998. p. 263–75.

    Google Scholar 

  9. A.S.P.E.N. Board of Directors and Clinical Guidelines Task Force. Guidelines for the use of parenteral and enteral nutrition in adult and pediatric patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2002;26.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Malone AM. The clinical benefits and efficacy in using specialized enteral feeding formulas. Support Line. 2002;24(1):3–11.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Ulate KP, Lima Falcao GC, Bielefeld MR, Morales JM, Rotta AT. Strict glycemic targets need not be so strict: a more permissive glycemic range for critically ill children. Pediatrics. 2008;122(4):e898–904.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Kong MY, Alten J, Tofil N. Is hyperglycemia really harmful? A critical appraisal of “Persistent hyperglycemia in critically ill children” by Faustino and Apkon (J Pediatr 2005; 146:30-34). Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2007;8(5):482–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Thomas MC, Mathew TH, Russ GR, Rao MM, Moran J. Early peri-operative glycaemic control and allograft rejection in patients with diabetes mellitus: a pilot study. Transplantation. 2001;72(7):1321–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Gandhi GY, Nuttall GA, Abel MD, Mullany CJ, Schaff HV, Williams BA, et al. Intra-operative hyperglycemia and perioperative outcomes in cardiac surgery patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005;80(7):862–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Doenst T, Wijeysundera D, Karkouti K, Zechner C, Maganti M, Rao V, et al. Hyperglycemia during cardiopulmonary bypass is an independent risk factor for mortality in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;130(4):1144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Ragaller M, Welte T, Rossaint R, Gerlach H, German Sepsis Competence Network (SepNet), et al. Practice and perception–a nationwide survey of therapy habits in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(10):2719–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, Bion J, Parker MM, Jaeschke R, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(1):296–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Krinsley JS, Grover A. Severe hypoglycemia in critically ill patients: risk factors and outcomes. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(10):2262–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Arabi YM, Dabbagh OC, Tamim HM, Al Shimemeri AA, Memish ZA, Haddad SH, et al. Intensive versus conventional insulin therapy: a randomized controlled trial in medical and surgical critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(12):3190–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, Blair D, Foster D, Dhingra V, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(13):1283–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Freire AX, Bridges L, Umpierrez GE, Kuhl D, Kitabchi AE. Admission hyperglycemia and other risk factors as predictors of hospital mortality in a medical ICU population. Chest. 2005;128(5):3109–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, Gerstein HC. Stress hyperglycaemia and increased risk of death after myocardial infarction in patients with and without diabetes: a systematic overview. Lancet. 2000;355(9206):773–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Mowery NT, Gunter OL, Guillamondegui O, Dossett LA, Dortch MJ, Morris Jr JA, et al. Stress insulin resistance is a marker for mortality in traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2009;66(1):145–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Prakash A, Matta BF. Hyperglycaemia and neurological injury. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2008;21(5):565–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Brownlee M. The pathobiology of diabetic complications: a unifying mechanism. Diabetes. 2005;54(6):1615–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Lin JN, Tsai YS, Lai CH, Chen YH, Tsai SS, Lin HL, Huang CK, Lin HH. Risk factors for mortality of bacteremic patients in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2009;16(8):749–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Del Rio A, Cervera C, Moreno A, Moreillon P, Miro JM. Patients at risk of complications of Staphylococcus aureus bloodstream infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48 Suppl 4:S246–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Leroy O, Gangneux JP, Montravers P, Mira JP, Gouin F, Sollet JP, AmarCand Study Group, et al. Epidemiology, management, and risk factors for death of invasive Candida infections in critical care: a multicenter, prospective, observational study in France (2005-2006). Crit Care Med. 2009;37(5):1612–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Philips BJ, Redman J, Brennan A, Wood D, Holliman R, Baines D, et al. Glucose in bronchial aspirates increases the risk of respiratory MRSA in intubated patients. Thorax. 2005;60(9):761–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Mowat A, Baum J. Chemotaxis of polymorphonuclear leukocytes from patients with diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1971;284(12):621–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Bybee JD, Rogers DE. The phagocytic activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes obtained from patients with diabetes mellitus. J Lab Clin Med. 1964;64:1–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Bagdade JD, Root RK, Bulger RJ. Impaired leukocyte function in patients with poorly controlled diabetes. Diabetes. 1974;23(1):9–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Stegenga ME, van der Crabben SN, Blumer RM, Levi M, Meijers JC, Serlie MJ, et al. Hyperglycemia enhances coagulation and reduces neutrophil degranulation, whereas hyperinsulinemia inhibits fibrinolysis during human endotoxemia. Blood. 2008;112(1):82–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Takahashi T, Matsuda K, Kono T, Pappas TN. Inhibitory effects of hyperglycemia on neural activity of the vagus in rats. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(2):309–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. American Diabetes Association. Nutrition recommendations and interventions for diabetes: a position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2007;30 Suppl 1:S48–65.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Elia M, Ceriello A, Laube H, Sinclair AJ, Engfer M, Stratton RJ. Enteral nutritional support and use of diabetes-specific formulas for patients with diabetes: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:2267–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. McMahon MM, Miles JM. Glycemic control and nutrition in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2006;9:120–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Yokoyama J, Someya Y, Yoshihara R, Ishii H. Effects of highmonounsaturated fatty acid enteral formula versus high-carbohydrate enteral formula on plasma glucose concentration and insulin secretion in healthy individuals and diabetic patients. J Int Med Res. 2008;36:137–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Coulston AM. Enteral nutrition in the patient with diabetes mellitus. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2000;3:11–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hebert SL, Nair KS. Protein and energy metabolism in type 1 diabetes. Clin Nutr. 2010;29:13–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Yeh GY, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ, Phillips RS. Systematic review of herbs and dietary supplements for glycemic control in diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26:1277–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Scott JA, King GL. Oxidative stress and antioxidant treatment in diabetes. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1031:204–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Krinsley JS. Association between hyperglycemia and increased hospital mortality in a heterogeneous population of critically ill patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 2003;78:1471–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Bagshaw SM, Egi M, George C, Bellomo R, Australia New Zealand Intensive Care Society Database Management Committee. Early blood glucose control and mortality in critically ill patients in Australia. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:463–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1359–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, Meersseman W, Wouters PJ, Milants I, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:449–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Arabi YM, Tamin HM, Rishu AH. Hypoglucemia with intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patient: predisposing factors and association with mortality. Crit Care Med. 2009;37:2536–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, Meier-Hellmann A, Ragaller M, Weiler N, German Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet), et al. Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:125–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Preiser JC, Devos P, Ruiz-Santana S, Mélot C, Annane D, Groeneveld J, et al. A prospective randomised multi-centre controlled trial on tight glucose control by intensive insulin therapy in adult intensive care units: the Glucontrol study. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35:1738–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Griesdale DE, De Souza R, Van Dam R, Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Malhotra A, et al. Intensive insuline therapy and mortality among critically ill patients. A meta-analysis including NICESUGAR study data. CMAJ. 2009;180:821–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Marik PE, Preiser JC. Toward understanding tight glycemic control in the ICU: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest. 2010;137:544–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Mesejo A, Acosta JA, Ortega C, Vila J, Fernández M, Ferreres J, et al. Comparison of a high-protein disease-specific enteral formula with a high-protein enteral formula in hyperglycemic critically ill patients. Clin Nutr. 2003;22(3):295–305.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Raup SM, Kaproth P. Hepatic failure. In: Matarese LE, Gottschlich MM, editors. Contemporary nutrition support practice: a clinical guide. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1998. p. 445–59.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Fischer JE. Branched-chain enriched amino acid solutions in patients with liver failure: an early example of nutritional pharmacology. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990;14:249S–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Fischer JE. The role of plasma amino acids in hepatic encephalopathy. Surgery. 1975;78:276–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Cerra FB, Cheung NK, Fischer JF. Disease specific amino acid infusion in hepatic encephalopathy: a prospective, randomized, double-blinded controlled trial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1985;9:288–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Michel H, Bories P, Aubin JP, Pomier-Layrargues G, Bauret P, Bellet-Herman H. Treatment of acute hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhotics with branched-chain amino acid enriched versus a conventional amino acid mixture. Liver. 1985;5:282–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Horst D, Grace ND, Conn HO, Schiff E, Schenker S, Viteri A, et al. Comparison of dietary protein with an oral, branched chain enriched amino acid supplement in chronic portal-systemic encephalopathy: a randomized controlled trial. Hepatology. 1984;4:279–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Rossi-Fanelli F, Riggio O, Cangiano C, Cascino A, De Conciliis D, Merli M, et al. Branched-chain amino acids vs lactulose in the treatment of hepatic coma: a controlled study. Dig Dis Sci. 1982;27:929–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Naylor CD, O’Rourke K, Detsky AS, Baker JP. Parenteral nutrition with branched-chain amino acids in hepatic encephalopathy. Gastroenterology. 1989;97:1033–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Marchesini G, Bianchi G, Merli M, Amodio P, Panella C, Loguercio C, et al. Nutritional supplementation with branched-chain amino acids in advanced cirrhosis: a double-blind, randomized trial. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:1792–801.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Als-Nielsen B, Koretz R, Gluud L, Gluud C. Branched-chain amino acids for hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;2:CD001939.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Russell MK, Charney P. Is there a role for specialized enteral nutrition in the intensive care unit? Nutr Clin Pract. 2002;17:156–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Mizok BA. Nutritional support in hepatic encephalopathy. Nutrition. 1999;15:220–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. McClave S, Martindale R, Vanek V, McCarthy M, Roberts P, Taylor B, et al. Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine and the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2009;33:277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Drover JW, Gramlich L, Dodek P, Canadian Critical Care Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee. Canadian Clinical Practice Guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2003;27(5):355–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Barr J, Hecht M, Flavin KE, Khorana A, Gould MK. Outcomes in critically ill patients before and after the implementation of an evidence-based nutritional management protocol. Chest. 2004;125(4):1446–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Rubinson L, Diette GB, Song X, Brower RG, Krishnan JA. Low caloric intake is associated with nosocomial bloodstream infections in patients in the medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(2):350–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Dickerson RN, Boschert KJ, Kudsk KA, Brown RO. Hypocaloric enteral tube feeding in critically ill obese patients. Nutrition. 2002;18(3):241–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Arabi YM, Haddad SH, Tamim HM, Rishu AH, Sakkijha MH, Kahoul SH, et al. Near-target caloric intake in critically ill medical-surgical patients is associated with adverse outcomes. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2010;34(3):280–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Hadfield RJ, Sinclair DG, Houldsworth PE, Evans TW. Effects of enteral and parenteral nutrition on gut mucosal permeability in the critically ill. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152((5, pt 1)):1545–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Hernandez G, Velasco N, Wainstein C, Castillo L, Bugedo G, Maiz A, et al. Gut mucosal atrophy after a short enteral fasting period in critically ill patients. J Crit Care. 1999;14(2):73–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. McClure RJ, Newell SJ. Randomised controlled study of clinical outcome following trophic feeding. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2000;82(1):F29–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Esteban A, Anzueto A, Frutos F, Alía I, Brochard L, Stewart TE, Mechanical Ventilation International Study Group, et al. Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a 28-day international study. JAMA. 2002;287:345–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Doig GS, Simpson F, Finfer S, Delaney A, Davies AR, Mitchell I, Nutrition Guidelines Investigators of the ANZICS Clinical trials Group, et al. Effect of evidence-based feeding guidelines on mortality of critically ill adults: a cluster randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008;300:2731–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Day A, Jain M, Drover J. Validation of the Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients: results of a prospective observational study. Crit Care Med. 2004;32:2260–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Braunschweig CA, Sheean PM, Peterson SJ, Perez SG, Freeis S, Lateef O, et al. Intensive nutrition in acute lung injury: a clinical trial (INTACT). JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2015;39:13–20.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, Steingrub J, Hite RD, Moss M, et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA. 2012;307:795–803.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Needham DM, Dinglas VD, Morris PE, Jackson JC, Hough CL, Mendez-Tellez PA, et al. Physical and cognitive performance of patients with acute lung injury 1 year after initial trophic versus full enteral feeding. EDEN trial follow-up. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188:567–76.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Berger MM, Mechanick J. Continuing controversy in the intensive care unit: why tight glycemic control, nutrition support, and nutritional pharmacology are each necessary therapeutic considerations. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13:167–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Bonet A, Grau T, Grupo de trabajo de Metabolismo y Nutrición de la SEMICYUC. Multicenter study on incidence of total parenteral nutrition complications in the critically-ill patient. ICOMEP study. Part I. Nutr Hosp. 2005;20:268–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Gadek JE, DeMichele SJ, Karlstad MD, Pacht ER, Donahoe M, Albertson TE, et al. Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma linolenic acid and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1409–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Singer P, Theilla M, Fisher H, Gibstein L, Grozovski E, Cohen J. Benefit of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentanoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1033–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Pontes-Arruda A, Aragao AM, Albuquerque JD. Effects of enteral feeding with eicosapentanoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and antioxidants in mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:2325–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Pontes-Arruda A, Demichele S, Seth A, Singer P. The use of an inflammation-modulating diet in patients with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis of outcome data. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2008;32:596–605.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Heller AR, Rossler S, Litz RJ, Stehr SN, Heller SC, Koch R, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids improve the diagnosis-related clinical outcome. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:972–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Early versus delayed enteral feeding and omega-3 fatty acid/antioxidant supplementation for treating people with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome (the EDEN omega Study) [consultado 16–2-2010]. http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCt00609180. Accessed october 14, 2015.

  88. Stapleton RD, Martin TR, Weiss NS, Crowley JJ, Gundel SJ, Nathens AB, et al. A phase II randomized placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2011;39:1655–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Grau-Carmona T, Morán-García V, García-de-Lorenzo A, Herasde-la-Calle G, Quesada-Bellver B, López-Martínez J, et al. Effect of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid and anti-oxidants on the outcome of mechanically ventilated, critically ill, septic patients. Clin Nutr. 2011;30(5):578–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Garfinkel F, Robinson R, Price C. Replacing carbohydrate calories with fat calories in enteral feedings for patients with impaired respiratory function. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1985;9:106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Baker JP, Detsky AS, Stewart S, Whitwell J, Marliss EB, Jeejeebhoy KN. Randomized trial of total parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients: metabolic effects of varying glucose-lipid ratios as the energy source. Gastroenterology. 1984;87:53–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Brown RO, Heizer WD. Nutrition and respiratory disease. Clin Pharm. 1984;3:152–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Angelillo VA, Sukhdarshan B, Durfee B, Dahl J, Patterson AJ, O’Donohue Jr WJ. Effects of low and high carbohydrate feedings in ambulatory patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic hypercapnia. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:883–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Akrabawi SS, Mobarhan S, Stoltz R, Stoltz R, Ferguson PW. Gastric emptying, pulmonary function, gas exchange, and respiratory quotient after feeding a moderate versus high fat enteral formula meal in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. Nutrition. 1996;12:260–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Kuo CD, Shiao GM, Lee JD. The effects of high-fat and high-carbohydrate diet loads on gas exchange and ventilation in COPD patients and normal subjects. Chest. 1993;104:189–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Vermeeren MA, Wouters EF, Nelissen LH, van Lier A, Hofman Z, Schols AM. Acute effects of different nutritional supplements on symptoms and functional capacity in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:295–301.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Al-Saady NM, Blackmore CM, Bennett ED. High fat, low carbohydrate, enteral feeding lowers PaCO2 and reduces the period of ventilation in artificially ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med. 1989;15:290–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. van den Berg B, Bogaard JM, Hop WC. High fat, low carbohydrate, enteral feeding in patients weaning from the ventilator. Intensive Care Med. 1994;20:470–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Ferreira IM, Brooks D, Lacasse Y, Goldstein RS. Nutritional support for individuals with CopD: a meta-analysis. Chest. 2000;117:672–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Covelli HD, Black JW, Olsen MS, Beekman JF. Respiratory failure precipitated by high carbohydrate loads. Ann Intern Med. 1981;95:579–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Askanazi J, Rosenbaum SH, Hyman AI, Silverberg PA, Milic-Emili J, Kinney JM. Respiratory changes induced by the large glucose loads of total parenteral nutrition. JAMA. 1980;243:1444–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Dark DS, Pingleton SK, Kerby GR. Hypercapnia during weaning. A complication of nutritional support. Chest. 1985;88:141–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Talpers SS, Romberger DJ, Bunce SB, Pingleton SK. Nutritionally associated increased carbon dioxide production: excess total calories vs high proportion of carbohydrate calories. Chest. 1992;102:551–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Critical care nutrition. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in adult critically ill patients; http://www.criticalcarenutrition.com/docs/cpg/4.2ahighfat_FINAL.pdf. Accessed 23 Mar 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Kreymann KG, Berger MM, Deutz NE, Hiesmayr M, Jolliet P, Kazandjiev G, et al. ESPEN guidelines on enteral nutrition: intensive care. Clin Nutr. 2006;25:210–23. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2006.01.021.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Goldstein DJ, Abrahamian-Gebeshian C. Nutrition support in renal failure. In: Matarese LE, Gottschlich MM, editors. Contemporary nutrition support practice: a clinical guide. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1998. p. 447–71.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Bellomo R, Tan H, Bhonagiri S, Gopal I, Seacombe J, Daskalakis M, et al. High protein intake during continuous hemodiafiltration: impact on amino acids and nitrogen balance. Int J Artif Organs. 2002;25:261–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Scheinkestel C, Adams F, Mahony L, Bailey M, Davies AR, Nyulasi I, et al. Impact of increasing parenteral protein loads on amino acid levels and balance in critically ill anuric patients on continuous renal replacement therapy. Nutrition. 2003;19:733–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pharmacy Department, Mt. Carmel West Hospital, 722 W. State Street, Columbus, OH, 43222, USA

    Ainsley Malone MS, RD, LD, CNSC

  2. Department of Surgery, University of Missouri - Kansas City and Truman Medical Center, 2411 Holmes St., Kansas City, MO, 64108, USA

    Farshad Farnejad MD, MPH

Authors
  1. Ainsley Malone MS, RD, LD, CNSC
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Farshad Farnejad MD, MPH
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ainsley Malone MS, RD, LD, CNSC .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Human Nutrition, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York, USA

    David S. Seres

  2. Department of Surgery, University of Missouri, Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA

    Charles W. Van Way, III

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Malone, A., Farnejad, F. (2016). Organ Failure and Specialized Enteral Formulas. In: Seres, D., Van Way, III, C. (eds) Nutrition Support for the Critically Ill. Nutrition and Health. Humana Press, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21831-1_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21831-1_10

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-21830-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-21831-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation