Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Approach and Management of Cervical Cancer

  • Chapter
International Manual of Oncology Practice

  • 1326 Accesses

Abstract

Cervical cancer represents the third most commonly diagnosed cancer and the fourth cause of cancer death in women worldwide. Developing countries carry the biggest burden with approximately 76–85 % of cervical cancer. The most important factor for the development of this neoplasia is persistent human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and the incidence of cervical cancer is related to the prevalence of HPV in the population. Squamous cell cervical cancer represents approximately 80 % of all cervical cancers and adenocarcinoma and its variations accounts for approximately 20 %. Staging is essentially a clinical evaluation. The FIGO staging procedures include colposcopy, biopsy; cystoscopy, proctosigmoidoscopy and chest radiograph, accordingly to the symptoms. The treatment for early-stage cervical cancer is either surgery or radiation therapy. Surgery is reserved for stages IA, IB1 and selected IIA1. Chemoradiation is the treatment of choice for stage IB2 to IVA and for patients who are not candidates for hysterectomy. For patients with metastatic disease (stage IVB), platinum-based chemotherapy is usually the first choice. Immunization against HPV is expected to prevent specific HPV cancer in women and more effective screening in developing countries will contribute for a significant decline in incidence and mortality of cervical cancer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F et al. (2010) GLOBOCAN2008 v2.0. Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: IARC Cancer Base No. 10 [Internet]. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer. Available at http://globocan.iarc.fr. Accessed 20 Jul 2012

  2. Mathers C, Boerma T, Ma Fat D (2008) The global burden of disease: 2004 update. WorldHealthOrganization, Geneva, Available at: http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GBD_report_2004update_full.pdf. Accessed 20 Jul 2012

    Book  Google Scholar 

  3. Kamangar F, Dores GM, Anderson WF (2006) Patterns of cancer incidence, mortality, and prevalence across five continents: defining priorities to reduce cancer disparities in different geographic regions of the world. J Clin Oncol 24:2137–2150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A (2013) Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin 63:11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM et al (1999) Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. J Pathol 189:12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. World Health Organization (2007) Cervical cancer, human papillomavirus (HPV), and HPV vaccines – key points for policy-makers and health professionals. http://www.who.int

  7. Quinn M, Babb P, Jones J, Allen E (1999) Effect of screening on incidence of and mortality from cancer of cervix in England: evaluation based on routinely collected statistics. BMJ 318(7188):904

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. WHO/ICO Information Center of HPV and Cervical Cancer (HPV Information Center). Human Papillomavirus and Related Cancers in the World. Summary Report 2010. http://www.who.int/hpvcentre/en/. Accessed 20 Nov 2013

  9. Shaw M, Galobardes B, Lawlor DA, Lynch J, Wheeler B, Smith GD (2007) The handbook of inequality and socioeconomic position: concepts and measures. The Policy Press, Bristol

    Google Scholar 

  10. Singh GK, Miller BA, Hankey BF, Edwards BK (2003) Area socioeconomic variations in U.S. Cancer incidence, 1975–1999. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda

    Google Scholar 

  11. Siegel R, Ward E, Brawley O, Jemal A (2011) Cancer statistics, 2011: the impact of eliminating socioeconomic and racial disparities on premature cancer deaths. CA Cancer J Clin 61(4):212

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. http://www2.inca.gov.br/wps/wcm/connect/tiposdecancer/site/home/colo_utero/definicao. Accessed 20 Nov 2013

  13. Rio de Janeiro (RJ) Instituto Nacional do Câncer Brasil. Estimativa 2012 Incidência do Câncer no Brasil. Available at http://www1.inca.gov.br/estimativa/2014. Accessed 31 Jan 2014

  14. Nanda K, McCrory DC, Myers ER, Bastian LA, Hasselblad V, Hickey JD, Matchar DB (2000) Accuracy of the Papanicolaou test in screening for and follow-up of cervical cytologic abnormalities: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 132(10):810

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Grisaru D, Covens A, Chapman B, Shaw P, Colgan T, Murphy J, DePetrillo D, Lickrish G, Laframboise S, Rosen B (2001) Does histology influence prognosis in patients with early-stage cervical carcinoma? Cancer 92(12):2999

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. International Collaboration of Epidemiological Studies of Cervical Cancer (2007) Comparison of risk factors for invasive squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the cervix: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 8,097 women with squamous cell carcinoma and 1,374 women with adenocarcinoma from 12 epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer 120(4):885

    Google Scholar 

  17. DiSaia PJ, Creasman WT (2007) Invasive cervical cancer. In: Clinical gynecologic oncology, 7th edn. Mosby Elsevier, Philadelphia, p 55

    Google Scholar 

  18. Pecorelli S, Zigliani L, Odicino F (2009) Revised FIGO staging for carcinoma of the cervix. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 105(2):107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Haie-Meder C, Morice P, Castiglione M, ESMO Guidelines Working Group (2010) Cervical cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol 21(5):v37–v40

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Hricak H, Gatsonis C, Chi DS, Amendola MA, Brandt K, Schwartz LH, Koelliker S, Siegelman ES, Brown JJ, McGhee RB Jr, Iyer R, Vitellas KM, Snyder B, Long HJ 3rd, Fiorica JV, Mitchell DG (2005) American College of Radiology Imaging Network 6651, Gynecologic Oncology Group 183 Role of imaging in pretreatment evaluation of early invasive cervical cancer: results of the intergroup study American College of Radiology Imaging Network 6651-Gynecologic Oncology Group 183. J Clin Oncol 23(36):9329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Quinn MA, Benedet JL, Odicino F, Maisonneuve P, Beller U, Creasman WT, Heintz AP, Ngan HY, Pecorelli S (2006) Carcinoma of the cervix uteri. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 95(Suppl 1):S43, FIGO 26th Annual Report on the Results of Treatment in Gynecological Cancer

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Mitchell DG, Snyder B, Coakley F, Reinhold C, Thomas G, Amendola M, Schwartz LH, Woodward P, Pannu H, Hricak H (2006) Early invasive cervical cancer: tumor delineation by magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, and clinical examination, verified by pathologic results, in the ACRIN 6651/GOG 183 Intergroup Study. J Clin Oncol 24(36):5687

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Balleyguier C, Sala E, Da Cunha T, Bergman A, Brkljacic B, Danza F, Forstner R, Hamm B, Kubik-Huch R, Lopez C, Manfredi R, McHugo J, Oleaga L, Togashi K, Kinkel K (2011) Staging of uterine cervical cancer with MRI: guidelines of the European society of urogenital radiology. Eur Radiol 21(5):1102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bipat S, Glas AS, van der Velden J, Zwinderman AH, Bossuyt PM, Stoker J (2003) Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in staging of uterine cervical carcinoma: a systematic review. Gynecol Oncol 91(1):59

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Showalter TN, Miller TR, Huettner P, Rader J, Grigsby PW (2009) 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography and pathologic tumor size in early-stage invasive cervical cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer 19(8):1412

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Hauspy J, Beiner M, Harley I, Ehrlich L, Rasty G, Covens A (2007) Sentinel lymph nodes in early stage cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 105(2):285

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Marnitz S, Köhler C, Roth C, Füller J, Hinkelbein W, Schneider A (2005) Is there a benefit of pretreatment laparoscopic transperitoneal surgical staging in patients with advanced cervical cancer? Gynecol Oncol 99(3):536

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Levenback C, Coleman RL, Burke TW, Lin WM, Erdman W, Deavers M, Delpassand ES (2002) Lymphatic mapping and sentinel node identification in patients with cervix cancer undergoing radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy. J Clin Oncol 20(3):688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Bader AA, Winter R, Haas J, Tamussino KF (2007) Where to look for the sentinel lymph node in cervical cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 197(6):678.e1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, Bosch FX, Kummer JA, Shah KV, Snijders PJ, Peto J, Meijer CJ, Muñoz N (1999) Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. J Pathol 189(1):12

    Google Scholar 

  31. Schiffman M, Castle PE, Jeronimo J, Rodriguez AC, Wacholder S (2007) Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Lancet 370(9590):89

    Google Scholar 

  32. Wolf JK, Ramirez PT (2001) The molecular biology of cervical cancer. Cancer Invest 19:621–629

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. zur Hausen H (1999) Papillomaviruses in human cancers. Proc Assoc Am Phys 111:581–587

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Doorbar J (2005) The papillomavirus life cycle. J Clin Virol 32(suppl 1):S7–S15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Scheuer ME, Tortolero-Luna G, Adler-Storthz K (2005) Human papillomavirus infection: biology, epidemiology, and prevention. Int J Gynecol Cancer 15:727–746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Martin CM, Astbury K, O’Leary JJ (2006) Molecular profiling of cervical neoplasia. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 6(2):217–229

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Richart RM (1973) Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. In: Pathology annual, vol 8. Appleton-Century-Crofts, East Norwalk, p 301

    Google Scholar 

  38. Crum CP (2003) Should the Bethesda system terminology be used in diagnostic surgical pathology?: Point. Int J Gynecol Pathol 22:5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Schneider V (2003) Should the Bethesda system terminology be used in diagnostic surgical pathology?: Counterpoint. Int J Gynecol Pathol 22:13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. DeVitaJr VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA (2011) Cancer – principles & practice of oncology, 9th edn. Lippincott: Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Volume 1/1

    Google Scholar 

  41. Manos MM, Kinney WK, Hurley LB et al (1999) Identifying women with cervical neoplasia: using human papillomavirus DNA testing for equivocal Papanicolaou results. JAMA 281:1605

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Ries LAG, Melbert D, Krapcho M et al (2007) SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2004. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda

    Google Scholar 

  43. Eifel PJ, Burke TW, Morris M, Smith TL (1995) Adenocarcinoma as an independent risk factor for disease recurrence in patients with stage IB cervical carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 59:38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Smith HO, Tiffany MF, Qualls CR, Key CR (2000) The rising incidence of adenocarcinoma relative to squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix in the United States – a 24-year population-based study. Gynecol Oncol 78:97

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Albores-Saavedra J, Gersell D, Gilks CB, Henson DE, Lindberg G, Santiago H, Scully RE, Silva E, Sobin LH, Tavassoli FJ, Travis WD, Woodruff JM (1997) Terminology of endocrine tumors of the uterine cervix: results of a workshop sponsored by the College of American Pathologists and the National Cancer Institute. Arch Pathol Lab Med 121:34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Villella JA, Bogner PN, Jani-Sait SN, Jani-Sait SN, Block AM, Lele S (2005) Rhabdomyosarcoma of the cervix in sisters with review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 99:742

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Kendrick JE 4th, Straughn JM Jr (2005) Two cases of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma presenting as primary gynecologic malignancies. Gynecol Oncol 98:490

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Wright JD, Rosenblum K, Huettner PC, Mutch DG, Rader JS, Powell MA, Gibb RK (2005) Cervical sarcomas: an analysis of incidence and outcome. Gynecol Oncol 99:348

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Azodi M, Chambers SK, Rutherford TJ, Kohorn EI, Schwartz PE, Chambers JT (1999) Adenocarcinoma in situ of the cervix: management and outcome. Gynecol Oncol 73:348

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Kostopoulou E, Keating JT, Crum CP (2001) Pathology. In: Eifel PJ, Levenback C (eds) Cancer of the female lower genital tract. B C Decker, Inc, London, p 9

    Google Scholar 

  51. Bean SM, Kurtycz DFI, Colgan TJ (2011) Recent developments in defining microinvasive and early invasive carcinoma of the uterine cervix. J Lower Genital Tract Dis 15:146–157

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Kristensen GB, Abeler VM, Risberg B et al (1999) Tumor size, depth of invasion and grading of the invasive tumor front are the main prognostic factors in early squamous cell cervical carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 74:245–251

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Young RH, Clement PB (2002) Endocervical adenocarcinoma and its variants: their morphology and differential diagnosis. Histopathology 41:185–207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Gien LT, Beauchemin MC, Thomas G (2010) Adenocarcinoma: a unique cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 116:140–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Pirog EC, Kleter B, Olgac S et al (2000) Prevalence of human papillomavirus DNA in different histological subtypes of cervical adenocarcinoma. Am J Pathol 157:1055–1062

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Barakat RR, Berchuck A, Markman M, Randall ME (2013) Principles and practice of gynecologic oncology, 6th edn. Philadelphia (PA): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

    Google Scholar 

  57. An HJ, Kim KR, Kim IS et al (2005) Prevalence of human papillomavirus DNA in various histological subtypes of cervical adenocarcinoma: a population-based study. Mod Pathol 18:528–534

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Wang SS, Sherman ME, Silverberg SG, Carreon JD, Lacey JV Jr, Zaino R, Kurman RJ, Hildesheim A (2006) Pathological characteristics of cervical adenocarcinoma in a multi-center U.S.-based study. Gynecol Oncol 103:541–546

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Viswanathan AN, Deavers MT, Jhingran A, Ramirez PT, Levenback C, Eifel PJ (2004) Small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the cervix: outcome and patterns of recurrence. Gynecol Oncol 93:27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (2013) Recommended adult immunization schedule: United States, 2013. Ann Intern Med 158:191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Massad LS, Schneider M, Watts H et al (2001) Correlating papanicolaou smear, colposcopic impression, and biopsy: results from the Women’s interagency HIV study. J Low Genit Tract Dis 5:212

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Garland SM, Hernandez-Avila M, Wheeler CM, Darragh T, Abulafia O, Salzer E, Muderspach LI, Sidawy M, Melnick S (2007) Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent anogenital diseases. N Engl J Med 356:1928

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. FUTURE II Study Group (2007) Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent high-grade cervical lesions. N Engl J Med 356:1915

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Paavonen J, Naud P, Salmerón J et al (2009) Efficacy of human papillomavirus (HPV)-16/18 AS04-adjuvanted vaccine against cervical infection and precancer caused by oncogenic HPV types (PATRICIA): final analysis of a double-blind, randomised study in young women. Lancet 374:301

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases (2011) General recommendations on immunization – recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 60:1

    Google Scholar 

  66. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2013) Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) recommended immunization schedules for persons aged 0 through 18 years and adults aged 19 years and older – United States, 2013. MMWR Surveill Summ 62(Suppl 1):1

    Google Scholar 

  67. Markowitz LE, Dunne EF, Saraiya M, Lawson HW, Chesson H, Unger ER (2007) Quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 56:1

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Saslow D, Castle PE, Cox JT, Davey DD, Einstein MH, Ferris DG, Goldie SJ, Harper DM, Kinney W, Moscicki AB, Noller KL, Wheeler CM, Ades T, Andrews KS, Doroshenk MK, Kahn KG, Schmidt C, Shafey O, Smith RA, Partridge EE, Gynecologic Cancer Advisory Group, Garcia F (2007) American cancer society guideline for human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine use to prevent cervical cancer and its precursors. CA Cancer J Clin 57:7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. www.who.int/wer

  70. Giuliano AR, Palefsky JM, Goldstone S et al (2011) Efficacy of quadrivalent HPV vaccine against HPV infection and disease in males. N Engl J Med 364:401

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kim JJ (2010) Targeted human papillomavirus vaccination of men who have sex with men in the USA: a cost-effectiveness modelling analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 10:845

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2011) Recommendations on the use of quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine in males-advisory committee on immunization practices (ACIP), 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 60:1705

    Google Scholar 

  73. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2010) FDA licensure of bivalent human papillomavirus vaccine (HPV2, Cervarix) for use in females and updated HPV vaccination recommendations from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 59:626

    Google Scholar 

  74. Kjaer SK, Sigurdsson K, Iversen OE, Hernandez-Avila M, Wheeler CM, Perez G, Brown DR, Koutsky LA, Tay EH, García P, Ault KA, Garland SM, Leodolter S, Olsson SE, Tang GW, Ferris DG, Paavonen J, Lehtinen M, Steben M, Bosch FX, Dillner J, Joura EA, Majewski S, Muñoz N, Myers ER, Villa LL, Taddeo FJ, Roberts C, Tadesse A, Bryan J, Maansson R, Lu S, Vuocolo S, Hesley TM, Saah A, Barr E, Haupt RM (2009) A pooled analysis of continued prophylactic efficacy of quadrivalent human papillomavirus (Types 6/11/16/18) vaccine against high-grade cervical and external genital lesions. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2:868

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Ferlay J, Shin HR, Bray F et al (2010) Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008. Int J Cancer 127:2893–2917

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Termrungruanglert W, Havanond P, Khemapech N, Lertmaharit S, Pongpanich S, Khorprasert C, Taneepanichskul S (2012) Cost and effectiveness evaluation of prophylactic HPV vaccine in developing countries. Value Health 15:S29–S34

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Landoni F, Maneo A, Colombo A, Placa F, Favini G, Ferri L, Mangioni C (1997) Randomised study of radical surgery versus radiotherapy for stage Ib-IIa cervical cancer. Lancet 350(9077):535–540

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Elliott P, Coppleson M, Rusell P, Liouros P, Carter J, Macleod C, Jones M (2000) Early invasive (FIGO stage IA) carcinoma of the cervix: a clinicopathologic study of 476 cases. Int J Gynecol Cancer 10(1):42–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Morris M, Mitchell MF, Silva EG, Copeland LJ, Gershenson DM (1993) Cervical conization as definitive therapy for early invasive squamous carcinoma of the cervix. Gynecol Oncol 51(2):193–196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Maiman MA, Fruchter RG, DiMaio TM, Boyce JG (1988) Superficially invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix. Obstet Gynecol 72(4):399–403

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Rogers LJ, Luesley DM (2009) Stage IA2 cervical carcinoma: how much treatment is enough? Int J Gynecol Cancer 19(9):1620–1624

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Baalbergen A, Smedts F, Helmerhorst TJ (2011) Conservative therapy in microinvasive adenocarcinoma of the uterine cervix is justified: an analysis of 59 cases and a review of the literature. Int J Gynecol Cancer 21(9):1640–1645

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Sevin BU, Nadji M, Averette HE, Hilsenbeck S, Smith D, Lampe B (1992) Microinvasive carcinoma of the cervix. Cancer 70(8):2121–2128

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Piver MS, Rutledge F, Smith JP (1974) Five classes of extended hysterectomy for women with cervical cancer. Obstet Gynecol 44(2):265–272

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Querleu D, Morrow CP, Cibula D, Abu-Rustum NR, Benedetti-Panici P, Köhler C, Raspagliesi F (2011) New classification system of radical hysterectomy: emphasis on a three-dimensional anatomic template for parametrial resection. Gynecol Oncol 122(2):264–268

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Landoni F, Maneo A, Cormio G, Perego P, Milani F, Caruso O, Mangioni C (2011) Class II versus class III radical hysterectomy in stage IB-IIA cervical cancer: a propective randomized study. Gynecol Oncol 80(1):3–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Landoni F, Maneo A, Zapardiel I, Zanagnolo V, Mangioni C (2012) Class I versus class III radical hysterectomy in stage IB1-IIA cervical cancer. A prospective randomized study. Eur J Surg Oncol 38(3):203–209

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Raspagliesi F, Ditto A, Fontanelli R, Zanaboni F, Solima E, Spatti G, Hanozet F, Vecchione F, Rossi G, Kusamura S (2006) Type II versus type III nerve-sparing radical hysterectomy: comparison of lower urinary tract dysfunction. Gynecol Oncol 102(2):256–262, Epub 2006 Jan 30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Dargent D, Martin X, Sacchetoni A, Mathevet P (2000) Laparoscopic vaginal radical trachelectomy: a treatment to preserve the fertility of cervical carcinoma patients. Cancer 88(8):1877–1882

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Mangler M, Lanowska M, Köhler C, Vercellino F, Schneider A, Speiser D (2014) Pattern of cancer recurrence in 320 patients after radical vaginal trachelectomy. Int J Gynecol Cancer 24(1):130–134

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Kolomainen DF, Bradley RJ, Larsen-Disney P, Shepherd JH (2013) Radical vaginal trachelectomy at 16 weeks’ gestation: a case report. Gynecol Oncol Case Rep 14(5):28–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Lanowska M, Mangler M, Speiser D, Bockholdt C, Schneider A, Köhler C, Vasiljeva J, Al-Hakeem M, Vercellino GF (2014) Radical vaginal trachelectomy after laparoscopic staging and neoadjuvant chemotherapy in women with early-stage cervical cancer over 2 cm: oncologic, fertility, and neonatal outcome in a series of 20 patients. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 23 Jan

    Google Scholar 

  93. Querleu D (1991) Radical hysterectomies by the Schauta-Amreich and Schauta-Stoeckel techniques assisted by celioscopy. J Gynecol Obstet Biol Reprod (Paris) 20(5):747–748

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Kucukmetin A, Biliatis I, Naik R, Bryant A (2013) Laparoscopically assisted radical vaginal hysterectomy versus radical abdominal hysterectomy for the treatment of early cervical cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10:CD006651

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Pergialiotis V, Rodolakis A, Christakis D, Thomakos N, Vlachos G, Antsaklis A (2013) Laparoscopically assisted vaginal radical hysterectomy: systematic review of the literature. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 20(6):745–753

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Lowe MP, Chamberlain DH, Kamelle SA, Johnson PR, Tillmanns TD (2009) A multi-institutional experience with robotic-assisted radical hysterectomy for early stage cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 113(2):191–194

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Gil-Ibáñez B, Díaz-Feijoo B, Pérez-Benavente A, Puig-Puig O, Franco-Camps S, Centeno C, Xercavins J, Gil-Moreno A (2013) Nerve sparing technique in robotic-assisted radical hysterectomy: results. Int J Med Robot 9(3):339–344

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Yim GW, Kim SW, Nam EJ, Kim S, Kim YT (2013) Learning curve analysis of robot-assisted radical hysterectomy for cervical cancer: initial experience at a single institution. J Gynecol Oncol 24(4):303–312

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Tinelli R, Malzoni M, Cosentino F, Perone C, Fusco A, Cicinelli E, Nezhat F (2011) Robotics versus laparoscopic radical hysterectomy with lymphadenectomy in patients with early cervical cancer: a multicenter study. Ann Surg Oncol 18(9):2622–2628

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Rotman M, Sedlis A, Piedmonte MR, Bundy B, Lentz SS, Muderspach LI, Zaino RJ (2006) A phase III randomized trial of postoperative pelvic irradiation in Stage IB cervical carcinoma with poor prognostic features: follow-up of a gynecologic oncology group study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 65(1):169–176

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Richard SD, Krivak TC, Castleberry A, Beriwal S, Kelley JL 3rd, Edwards RP, Sukumvanich P (2008) Survival for stage IB cervical cancer with positive lymph node involvement: a comparison of completed vs. abandoned radical hysterectomy. Gynecol Oncol 109(1):43–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Wagner AE, Pappas L, Ghia AJ, Gaffney DK (2013) Impact of tumor size on survival in cancer of the cervix and validation of stage IIA1 and IIA2 subdivisions. Gynecol Oncol 129(3):517–521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Keys HM, Bundy BN, Stehman FB, Okagaki T, Gallup DG, Burnett AF, Rotman MZ, Fowler WC Jr, for the Gynecologic Oncology Group (2003) Radiation therapy with and without extrafascial hysterectomy for bulky stage IB cervical carcinoma: a randomized trial of the gynecologic oncology group. Gynecol Oncol 89(3):343–353

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Kim HS, Sardi JE, Katsumata N, Ryu HS, Nam JH, Chung HH, Park NH, Song YS, Behtash N, Kamura T, Cai HB, Kim JW (2013) Efficacy of neoadjuvant chemotherapy in patients with FIGO stage IB1 to IIA cervical cancer: an international collaborative meta-analysis. Eur J Surg Oncol 39(2):115–124

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Tsubamoto H, Maeda H, Kanazawa R, Ito Y, Ohama N, Hori M, Ikeda Y, Kato T, Sakane R, Hirota S (2013) Phase II trial on neoadjuvant intravenous and trans-uterine arterial chemotherapy for locally advanced bulky cervical adenocarcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 129(1):129–134

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Höckel M, Horn LC, Manthey N, Braumann UD, Wolf U, Teichmann G, Frauenschläger K, Dornhöfer N, Einenkel J (2009) Resection of the embryologically defined uterovaginal (Müllerian) compartment and pelvic control in patients with cervical cancer: a prospective analysis. Lancet Oncol 10(7):683–692

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Folkert MR, Shih KK, Abu-Rustum NR, Jewell E, Kollmeier MA, Makker V, Barakat RR, Alektiar KM (2012) Postoperative pelvic intensity-modulated radiotherapy and concurrent chemotherapy in intermediate- and high-risk cervical cancer. Gynecol Oncol 128(2):288–293

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Whitney CW, Sause W, Bundy BN et al (1999) A randomized comparison of fluorouracil plus cisplatin versus hydroxyurea as an adjunct to radiation therapy in stages IIB- IVA carcinoma of the cervix with negative para-aortic lymph nodes. A gynecologic oncology group and southwest oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 17:1339–1348

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Rose PG, Bundy BN, Watkins EB et al (1999) Concurrent cisplatin-based chemoradiation improves progression free and overall survival in advanced cervical cancer. Results of a randomized gynecologic oncology group study. N Engl J Med 340:1144–1153

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Morris M, Eifel PJ, Lu J et al (1999) Pelvic radiation with concurrent chemotherapy versus pelvic and para-aortic radiation for high-risk cervical cancer: a randomized radiation therapy oncology group clinical trial. N Engl Med 340:1137–1143

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Finlay MH, Ackerman I, Tirona RG, Hamilton P, Barbera L, Thomas G (2006) Use of CT stimulation for treatment of cervical cancer to assess the adequacy of limph node coverage of conventional pelvic fields based on bony landmarks. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 64:205–209

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Erridge SC, Kerr GR, Downing D, Duncan W, Price A (2002) The effect of overall treatment time on the survival and toxicity of radical radiotheraphy for cervical carcinoma. Radiother Oncol 63(1):59–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Gandhi AK, Sharma DN, Rath GK et al (2013) Early clinical outcomes and toxicity of intensity modulated versus conventional pelvic radiation therapy for locally advanced cervix carcinoma: a prospective randomized study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 87(3):542–548

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Klopp AH, Moughan J, Portelance L, Miller BE, Salehpour MR, Hildebrandt E, Nuanjing J, D’Souza D, Souhami L, Small W Jr, Gaur R, Jhingran A (2013) Hematologic toxicitiy in RTOG 0418: a phase 2 study of postoperative IMRT for gynecologic cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 86(1):83–90

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Renard-Oldrini S, Brunaud C, Huger S, Marchesi V, Tournier-Rangeard L, Bouzid D, Harter V, Peiffert D (2012) Dosimetric comparison between the instensity modulated radiotherapy with fixed field and rapid Arc of cervix cancer. Cancer Radiother 16(3):209–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Patel FD, Sharma SC, Negi PS, Ghoshal S, Gupta BD (1994) Low dose rate vc. High dose rate brachytherapy in the treatment of carcinoma of the uterine cervix: a clinical trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 28:335–341

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. International Commision of Radiation Units and Measurements Dose and Volume specific cations for reporting intracavitary therapy in gynecology. ICRU Report 38. 1985, International Comission on Radiation Units, Bethesda

    Google Scholar 

  118. Haie-Meder C, Potter R, Van Limbergen E, Barillot I, De Brabandere M, Dimopoulos J, Dumas I, Erickson B, Lang S, Nulens A, Petrow P, Rownd J, Kirisits C, GEC ESTRO Working Group (2005) Recommendations from Gynaecological (GYN) GEC ESTRO Working Group (I): concepts and terms in 3D image-based 3D treatment planning in cervix cancer brachytherapy with emphasis on MRI assessment of GTV and CTV. Radiother Oncol 74:235–245

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Charra-Brunaud C, Harter V, Delannes M, Haie-Meder C, Quetin P, Kerr C, Castelain B, Thomas L, Peiffert D (2012) Impact of 3D image-based PDR brachytherapy on outcome of patients treated for cervix carcinoma in France: results of the French STIC prospective study. Radiother Oncol 103(3):305–313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Delgado G, Bundy B, Zaino R, Sevin BU, Creasman WT, Major F (1990) Prospective surgical-pathological study of disease-free interval in patients with stage IB squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. Gynecol Oncol 38:352

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Levine DA et al (2010) Principles and practice of gynecologic oncology (ed1). Lippincott: Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  122. Choy D, Wong LC, Sham J, Ngan HY, Ma HK (1993) Dose-tumor response of carcinoma of cervix: an analysis of 594 patients treated by radiotherapy. Gynecol Oncol 49(3):311–317

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Rydzewska L, Tierney J, Vale CL, Symonds PR (2012) Neoadjuvant chemotherapy plus surgery versus surgery for cervical cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 12:CD007406

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Peters WA III, Liu PY, Barrett RJ et al (1999) Cisplatin and 5-Fluorouracil plus radiation therapy are superior to radiation therapy as adjunctive in high-risk early stage carcinoma of the cervicix after radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy: report of a phase III intergroup study. Gynecol Oncol 72:443

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Pearcey R, Brundage M, Drouin P, Jeffrey J, Johnston D, Lukka H, MacLean G, Souhami L, Stuart G, Tu D (2002) Phase III trial comparing radical radiotherapy with and without cisplatin chemoterapy in patients with advanced squamous cell cancer of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 20:966–972

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Chemoradiotherapy for Cervical Cancer Meta-analysis Collaboration CCCMAC (2010) Reducing uncertainties about the effects of chemoradiotherapy for cervical cancer: individual patient data meta-analysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev Jan 20;(1):CD008285

    Google Scholar 

  127. Monk BJ, Sill MW, McMeekin DS, Cohn DE, Ramondetta LM, Boardman CH, Benda J, Cella D (2009) Phase III trial of four cisplatin-containing doublet combinations in stage IVB, recurrent, or persistent cervical carcinoma: a gynecologic oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 27:4649–4655

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Dueñas-González A, Zarbá JJ, Patel F, Alcedo JC, Beslija S, Casanova L, Pattaranutaporn P, Hameed S, Blair JM, Barraclough H, Orlando M (2011) Phase III, open-label, randomized study comparing concurrent gemcitabine plus cisplatin and radiation followed by adjuvant gemcitabine and cisplatin versus concurrent cisplatin and radiation in patients with stage IIb to IVa carcinoma of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 29:1678–1685

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Lim MC, Lee HS, Seo SS, Kim MS, Kim JY, Zo JI, Park SY (2010) Pathologic diagnosis and resection of suspicious thoracic metastases in patients with cervical cancer through thoracotomy or video-assisted thoracic surgery. Gynecol Oncol 116:478

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Patel CN, Nazir SA, Khan Z, Gleeson FV, Bradley KM (2011) 18F-FDG PET/CT of cervical carcinoma. AJR Am J Roentgenol 196:1225

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Pallardy A, Bodet-Milin C, Oudoux A, Campion L, Bourbouloux E, Sagan C, Ansquer C, Testard A, Resche I, Bridji B, Kraeber-Bodéré F, Rousseau C (2010) Clinical and survival impact of FDG PET in patients with suspicion of recurrent cervical carcinoma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 37:1270

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Friedlander M, Grogan M (2002) U.S. Preventative services task force. Guidelines for the treatment of recurrent and metastatic cervical cancer. Oncologist 7:342

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Berek JS, Howe C, Lagasse LD, Hacker NF (2005) Pelvic exenteration for recurrent gynecologic malignancy: survival and morbidity analysis of the 45-year experience at UCLA. Gynecol Oncol 99:153

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Rutledge S, Carey MS, Prichard H, Allen HH, Kocha W, Kirk ME (1994) Conservative surgery for recurrent or persistent carcinoma of the cervix following irradiation: is exenteration always necessary? Gynecol Oncol 52:353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Mahé MA, Gérard JP, Dubois JB, Roussel A, Bussières E, Delannes M, Guillemin F, Schmitt T, Dargent D, Guillard Y, Martel P, Richaud P, Cuillière JC, De Ranieri J, Malissard L (1996) Intraoperative radiation therapy in recurrent carcinoma of the uterine cervix: report of the French Intraoperative Group on 70 patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 34:21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Wang CJ, Lai CH, Huang HJ, Hong JH, Chou HH, Huang KG, Lin JD (1999) Recurrent cervical carcinoma after primary radical surgery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181:518

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Haasbeek CJ, Uitterhoeve AL, van der Velden J, González DG, Stalpers LJ (2008) Long-term results of salvage radiotherapy for the treatment of recurrent cervical carcinoma after prior surgery. Radiother Oncol 89:197

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Hong JH, Tsai CS, Lai CH, Chang TC, Wang CC, Chou HH, Lee SP, Hsueh S (2004) Recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of cervix after definitive radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 60:249

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Long HJ 3rd (2007) Management of metastatic cervical cancer: review of the literature. J Clin Oncol 25:2966

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Movva S, Rodriguez L, Arias-Pulido H, Verschraegen C (2009) Novel chemotherapy approaches for cervical cancer. Cancer 115:3166

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Garces ÁH, Mora PA, Alves FV, do Carmo CC, Grazziotin R, Fernandes AC, Nogueira-Rodrigues A, de Melo AC (2013) First-line paclitaxel and carboplatin in persistent/recurrent or advanced cervical cancer: a retrospective analysis of patients treated at Brazilian National Cancer Institute. Int J Gynecol Cancer 23(4):743–748. doi:10.1097/IGC.0b013e31828c141d

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Lhomme C, Fumoleau P, Fargeot P, Krakowski Y, Dieras V, Chauvergne J, Vennin P, Rebattu P, Roche H, Misset JL, Lentz MA, Van Glabbeke M, Matthieu-Boué A, Mignard D, Chevallier B (1999) Results of a European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Early Clinical Studies Group phase II trial of first-line irinotecan in patients with advanced or recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix. J Clin Oncol 17:3142–3142

    Google Scholar 

  143. Brader KR, Morris M, Levenback C, Levy L, Lucas KR, Gershenson DM (1998) Chemotherapy for cervical carcinoma: factors determining response and implications for clinical trial design. J Clin Oncol 16:1879

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Moore DH, Blessing JA, McQuellon RP, Thaler HT, Cella D, Benda J, Miller DS, Olt G, King S, Boggess JF, Rocereto TF (2004) Phase III study of cisplatin with or without paclitaxel in stage IVB, recurrent, or persistent squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 22:3113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Long HJ III, Bundy BN, Grendys EC Jr, Benda JA, McMeekin DS, Sorosky J, Miller DS, Eaton LA, Fiorica JV, Gynecologic Oncology Group Study (2005) Randomized phase III trial of cisplatin with or without topotecan in carcinoma of the uterine cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 23:4626

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Tanioka M, Katsumata N, Yonemori K, Kouno T, Shimizu C, Tamura K, Ando M, Fujiwara Y (2011) Second platinum therapy in patients with uterine cervical cancer previously treated with platinum chemotherapy. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 68:337–342

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Tewari KS, Sill M, Long HJ, et al (2013) Incorporation of bevacizumab in the treatment of recurrent and metastatic cervical cancer: a phase III randomized trial of the Gynecologic Oncology Group. J Clin Oncol 31:abstr 3.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Kitagawa R, Katsumata N, Shibata T et al (2012) ASCO Annual Meeting, Abstract 5006, J Clin Oncol 30, 2012 (suppl; abstr 5006)). ASCO MEETING ABSTRACTS May 30, 2012:5006. http://meeting.ascopubs.org/cgi/content/abstract/30/15_suppl/5006?sid=35b64867-7d01-4c13-8529-b6396edc7824

  149. Weiss GR, Green S, Hannigan EV, Boutselis JG, Surwit EA, Wallace DL, Alberts DS (1990) A phase II trial of carboplatin for recurrent or metastatic squamous carcinoma of the uterine cervix: a southwest oncology group study. Gynecol Oncol 39:332

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Alberts DS, Blessing JA, Landrum LM, Warshal DP, Martin LP, Rose SL, Bonebrake AJ, Ramondetta LM (2012) Phase II trial of nab-paclitaxel in the treatment of recurrent or persistent advanced cervix cancer: a gynecologic oncology group study. Gynecol Oncol 127:451

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Muggia FM, Blessing JA, Method M, Miller DS, Johnson GA, Lee RB, Menzin A, Gynecologic Oncology Group study (2004) Evaluation of vinorelbine in persistent or recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. Gynecol Oncol 92:639

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Curtin JP, Blessing JA, Webster KD, Rose PG, Mayer AR, Fowler WC Jr, Malfetano JH, Alvarez RD (2001) Paclitaxel, an active agent in nonsquamous carcinomas of the uterine cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 19:1275

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Lorusso D, Ferrandina G, Pignata S, Ludovisi M, Viganò R, Scalone S, Scollo P, Breda E, Pietragalla A, Scambia G (2010) Evaluation of pemetrexed (Alimta, LY231514) as second-line chemotherapy in persistent or recurrent carcinoma of the cervix: the CERVIX 1 study of the MITO (Multicentre Italian Trials in Ovarian Cancer and Gynecologic Malignancies) Group. Ann Oncol 21:61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Thigpen T (2003) The role of chemotherapy in the management of carcinoma of the cervix. Cancer J 9:425

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Muderspach LI, Blessing JA, Levenback C, Moore JL Jr (2001) A Phase II study of topotecan in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. Gynecol Oncol 81:213

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Monk BJ, Sill MW, Burger RA, Gray HJ, Buekers TE, Roman LD (2009) Phase II trial of bevacizumab in the treatment of persistent or recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. J Clin Oncol 27:1069–1074

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Monk BJ, Mas Lopwz L, Zarba JJ, Oaknin A, Tarpin C, Termrungruanglert W, Alber JA, Ding J, Stutts MW, Pandite LN (2010) Phase II, open-label study of pazopanib or lapatinib monotherapy compared with pazopanib plus lapatinib combination therapy in patients with advanced and recurrent cervical cancer. J Clin Oncol 28:3562–3569

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Santin AD, Sill MW, McKeekin DS, Leitao MM Jr, Brown J, Sutton GP, Van Le L, Griffin P, Boardman CH (2011) Phase II trial of cetuximab in the treatment of persistent or recurrent squamous or non-squamous cell carcinoma of the cervix: a gynecologic oncology group study. Glob Open 122(3):495–500

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1993) 1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. JAMA 269:729

    Google Scholar 

  160. Maiman M, Fruchter RG, Clark M, Arrastia CD, Matthews R, Gates EJ (1997) Cervical cancer as an AIDS-defining illness. Obstet Gynecol 89:76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Ahdieh L, Klein RS, Burk R, Cu-Uvin S, Schuman P, Duerr A, Safaeian M, Astemborski J, Daniel R, Shah K (2001) Prevalence, incidence, and type-specific persistence of human papillomavirus in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative women. J Infect Dis 184:682–690

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Harris TG, Burk RD, Palefsky JM, Massad LS, Bang JY, Anastos K, Minkoff H, Hall CB, Bacon MC, Levine AM, Watts DH, Silverberg MJ, Xue X, Melnick SL, Strickler HD (2005) Incidence of cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions associated with HIV serostatus, CD4 cell counts, and human papillomavirus test results. JAMA 293:1471–1476

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Villa LL, Costa RL, Petta CA, Andrade RP, Ault KA, Giuliano AR, Wheeler CM, Koutsky LA, Malm C, Lehtinen M, Skjeldestad FE, Olsson SE, Steinwall M, Brown DR, Kurman RJ, Ronnett BM, Stoler MH, Ferenczy A, Harper DM, Tamms GM, Yu J, Lupinacci L, Railkar R, Taddeo FJ, Jansen KU, Esser MT, Sings HL, Saah AJ, Barr E (2005) Prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, and 18) L1 virus-like particle vaccine in young women: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre phase II efficacy trial. Lancet Oncol 6:271–278

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Fruchter RG, Maiman M, Sedlis A, Bartley L, Camilien L, Arrastia CD (1996) Multiple recurrences of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in women with the human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet Gynecol 87:338

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Marnitz S, Schmittel A, Bolbrinker J, Schmidt FP, Fons G, Kalache K, Schneider A, Köhler C (1748) The therapeutic management of a twin pregnancy complicated by the presence of cervical cancer, following laparoscopic staging and chemotherapy, with an emphasis on cisplatin concentrations in the fetomaternal compartments amnion fluid, umbilical cord, and maternal serum. Fertil Steril 2009(92):e1–e4

    Google Scholar 

  166. Marnitz S, Köhler C, Oppelt P, Schmittel A, Favero G, Hasenbein K, Schneider A, Markman M (2010) Cisplatin application in pregnancy: first in vivo analysis of 7 patients. Oncology 79:72–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (2012) Cervical cancer, version 1. Available online http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/PDF/cervical.pdf

  168. Morice P, Uzan C, Gouy S, Verschraegen C, Haie-Meder C (2012) Gynaecological cancers in pregnancy. Lancet 3379:558–569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  169. Morice P, Narducci F, Mathevet P et al (2009) On the Behalf of the French Working Group on Gynecological Cancers in Pregnancy, Société Française D’Oncologie Gynécologique (SFOG), Société Française de Chirurgie Pelvienne (SFCP), and the Collège National des Gynécologues Obstétriciens Français (CNGOF). Int J Gynecol Cancer 19:1638–1641

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Plante M, Renaud MC, Hoskins IA, Roy M (2005) Vaginal radical trachelectomy: a valuable fertility- preserving option in the management of early-stage cervical cancer. A series of 50 pregnancies and review of the literature. Gynecol Oncol 98:3–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Bleyer A, O’Leary M, Barr R, Ries L (eds) (2006) Cancer epidemiology in older adolescents and young adults 15 to 29 years of age, including SEER incidence and survival: 1975–2000. National Cancer Institute, NIH Pub. No. 06-5767. Bethesda

    Google Scholar 

  172. Kardakis S (2012) Fertility-preserving surgery in patients with early stage cervical carcinoma. ISRN Oncol. In press. Review of fertility-preserving surgery in cervical carcinoma

    Google Scholar 

  173. Wright JD, Nathavith Arana R, Lewin SN, Sun X, Deutsch I, Burke WM, Herzog TJ (2010) Fertility- conserving surgery for young women with stage IA1 cervical cancer: safety and access. Obstet Gynecol 115:585–590

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Arbyn M, Kyrgiou M, Simoens C, Raifu AO, Koliopoulos G, Martin-Hirsch P, Prendiville W, Paraskevaidis E (2008) Perinatal mortality and other severe adverse pregnancy outcomes associated with treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: meta-analysis. BMJ 337:a1284

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Rob L, Charvat M, Robova H, Pluta M, Strnad P, Hrehorcak M, Skapa P (2007) Less radical fertility-sparing surgery than radical trachelectomy in early cervical cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer 17:304–310

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Milliken DA, Shepherd JH (2008) Fertility preserving surgery for carcinoma of the cervix. Curr Opin Oncol 20:575–580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Jolley JA, Battista L, Wing DA (2007) Management of pregnancy after radical trachelectomy: case reports and systematic review of the literature. Am J Perinatol 24:531–539

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Boss EA, van Golde RJ, Beerendonk CC, Massuger LF (2005) Pregnancy after radical trachelectomy: a real option? Gynecol Oncol 99(Suppl 1):S152–S156, 152

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Dursun P, Ayhan A, Yanik FB, Kuşçu E (2009) Ovarian transposition for the preservation of ovarian function in young patients with cervical carcinoma. Eur J Gynaecol Oncol 30:13–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Brazilian National Cancer Institute, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

    Alvaro Henrique Ingles Garces M.D., Andreia Cristina de Melo M.Sc., M.D., Angélica Nogueira-Rodrigues Ph.D., M.D., Gustavo Guitmann M.D., Gustavo Iglesias M.D., Julia Alena Leite M.D., Mariane Sousa Fontes Dias M.D., Rachele Grazziotin M.D. & Carlos Gil Ferreira Moreira Ph.D., M.D.

  2. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

    Márcio Lemberg Reisner Ph.D., M.D.

Authors
  1. Alvaro Henrique Ingles Garces M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Andreia Cristina de Melo M.Sc., M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Angélica Nogueira-Rodrigues Ph.D., M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gustavo Guitmann M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Gustavo Iglesias M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Julia Alena Leite M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Márcio Lemberg Reisner Ph.D., M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Mariane Sousa Fontes Dias M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Rachele Grazziotin M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Carlos Gil Ferreira Moreira Ph.D., M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Medical Oncology, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    Ramon Andrade de Mello

  2. edificio 7, ala nascente, 3º andar, University of Algarve, Dept Cie Biomed edificio 7, ala nascente, 3º andar, Faro, Portugal

    Álvaro Tavares

  3. Medical Oncology, University of Athens, Athens, Greece

    Giannis Mountzios

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Garces, A.H.I. et al. (2015). Approach and Management of Cervical Cancer. In: de Mello, R., Tavares, Á., Mountzios, G. (eds) International Manual of Oncology Practice. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21683-6_19

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation