Abstract
White adipose tissue is a highly active metabolic and endocrine organ containing adipocytes, connective tissue matrix, nerve tissue, stromovascular and immune cells and secretes many adipokines such as leptin, adiponectin, cytokines, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, complements components, proteins of the renin-angiotensin system, and resistin, and considered also a major site for metabolism of corticosteroid hormones.
In obesity, increased production of most adipokines having impacts on multiple functions such as appetite and energy balance, insulin sensitivity, angiogenesis, blood pressure, lipid metabolism, all of which are linked with cardiovascular disease. A better understanding of the endocrine function of adipose tissue will likely lead to more rational therapy for these increasingly prevalent disorders. This chapter will provide a brief overview of the metabolic and endocrine functions of adipose tissue.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Giordano A, Smorlesi A, Frontini A, et al. White, brown and pink adipocytes: the extraordinary plasticity of the adipose organ. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;170:R159–71.
Frontini A, Cinti S. Distribution and development of brown adipocytes in the murine and human adipose organ. Cell Metab. 2010;11:253–6.
Cannon B, Nedergaard J. Brown adipose tissue: function and physiological significance. Physiol Rev. 2004;84:277–359.
Marti A, Berraondo B, Martinez JA. ‘Obese’ protein slims mice. Science. 1995;269:475–6.
Chaldakov GN, Stankulov IS, Hristova M, et al. Adipobiology of disease: adipokines and adipokine-targeted pharmacology. Curr Pharm Des. 2003;9:1023–31.
Ahima RS, Flier JS. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2000;11:327–32.
Fruhbeck G, Gomez-Ambrosi J, Muruzabal FJ, et al. The adipocyte: a model for integration of endocrine and metabolic signaling in energy metabolism regulation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001;280:E827–47.
Ahima RS, Saper CB, Flier JS, et al. Leptin regulation of neuroendocrine systems. Front Neuroendocrinol. 2000;21:263–307.
Ahima RS, Kelly J, Elmquist JK, et al. Distinct physiologic and neuronal responses to decreased leptin and mild hyperleptinemia. Endocrinology. 1999;140:4923–31.
Flier JS. Clinical review 94: what’s in a name? In search of leptin’s physiologic role. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 1998;83:1407–13.
Coleman DL. Effects of parabiosis of obese with diabetes and normal mice. Diabetologia. 1973;9:294–8.
Farooqi IS, Jebb SA, Langmack G, et al. Effects of recombinant leptin therapy in a child with congenital leptin deficiency. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:879–84.
Clement K, Vaisse C, Lahlou N, et al. A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature. 1998;392:398–401.
Bakker AH, Van Dielen FM, Greve JW, et al. Preadipocyte number in omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese individuals. Obes Res. 2004;12:488–98.
Montez JM, Soukas A, Asilmaz E, et al. Acute leptin deficiency, leptin resistance, and the physiologic response to leptin withdrawal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102:2537–42.
Wallace AM, McMahon AD, Packard CJ, et al. Plasma leptin and the risk of cardiovascular disease in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS). Circulation. 2001;104:3052–6.
Bjorbaek C, Kahn BB. Leptin signaling in the central nervous system and the periphery. Recent Prog Horm Res. 2004;59:305–31.
Flier JS, Harris M, Hollenberg AN. Leptin, nutrition, and the thyroid: the why, the wherefore, and the wiring. J Clin Invest. 2000;105:859–61.
Hileman SM, Pierroz DD, Flier JS. Leptin, nutrition, and reproduction: timing is everything. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:804–7.
Chan JL, Heist K, DePaoli A, et al. The role of falling leptin levels in the neuroendocrine and metabolic adaptation to short term starvation in healthy men. J Clin Invest. 2003;111:1409–21.
Margetic S, Gazzola C, Pegg GG, et al. Leptin: a review of its peripheral actions and interactions. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2002;26:1407–33.
Lord GM, Matarese G, Howard JK, et al. Leptin modulates the T-cell immune response and reverses starvation-induced immunosuppression. Nature. 1998;394:897–901.
Chandran M, Phillips SA, Ciaraldi T, et al. Adiponectin: more than just another fat cell hormone? Diabetes Care. 2003;26:2442–50.
Fain JN, Madan AK, Hiler ML, et al. Comparison of the release of adipokines by adipose tissue, adipose tissue matrix, and adipocytes from visceral and subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissues of obese humans. Endocrinology. 2004;145:2273–82.
Maeda K, Okubo K, Shimomura I, et al. cDNA cloning and expression of a novel adipose specific collagen-like factor, apM1 (AdiPose Most abundant Gene transcript 1). Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1996;221:286–9.
Scherer PE, Williams S, Fogliano M, et al. A novel serum protein similar to C1q, produced exclusively in adipocytes. J Biol Chem. 1995;270:26746–9.
Nakano Y, Tobe T, Choi-Miura NH. Isolation and characterization of GBP28, a novel gelatin-binding protein purified from human plasma. J Biochem. 1996;120:803–12.
Hu E, Liang P, Spiegelman BM. AdipoQ is a novel adipose-specific gene dysregulated in obesity. J Biol Chem. 1996;271:10697–703.
Diez JJ, Iglesias P. The role of the novel adipocyte-derived hormone adiponectin in human disease. Eur J Endocrinol. 2003;148:293–300.
Hotta K, Funahashi T, Bodkin NL, et al. Circulating concentrations of the adipocyte protein adiponectin are decreased in parallel with reduced insulin sensitivity during the progression to type 2 diabetes in rhesus monkeys. Diabetes. 2001;50:1126–33.
Kinlaw WB, Marsh B. Adiponectin and HIV-lipodystrophy: taking HAART. Endocrinology. 2004;145:484–6.
Ouchi N, Kihara S, Arita Y, et al. Novel modulator for endothelial adhesion molecules: adipocyte-derived plasma protein adiponectin. Circulation. 1999;100:2473–6.
Tan KC, Xu A, Chow WS, et al. Hypoadiponectinemia is associated with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2004;89:765–9.
Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Waki H, et al. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with both lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat Med. 2001;7:941–6.
Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Waki H, et al. Globular adiponectin protected ob/ob mice from diabetes and ApoE-deficient mice from atherosclerosis. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:2461–8.
Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Minokoshi Y, et al. Adiponectin stimulates glucose utilization and fatty-acid oxidation by activating AMP-activated protein kinase. Nat Med. 2002;8:1288–95.
Bruun JM, Lihn AS, Verdich C, et al. Regulation of adiponectin by adipose tissue-derived cytokines: in vivo and in vitro investigations in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003;285:E527–33.
Pischon T, Girman CJ, Hotamisligil GS, et al. Plasma adiponectin levels and risk of myocardial infarction in men. JAMA. 2004;291:1730–7.
Schulze MB, Shai I, Rimm EB, et al. Adiponectin and future coronary heart disease events among men with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2005;54:534–9.
Lindsay RS, Resnick HE, Zhu J. Adiponectin and coronary heart disease: the Strong Heart Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25:15–6.
Spranger J, Kroke A, Mohlig M, et al. Adiponectin and protection against type 2 diabetes mellitus. Lancet. 2003;361:226–8.
Lindsay RS, Funahashi T, Hanson RL, et al. Adiponectin and development of type 2 diabetes in the Pima Indian population. Lancet. 2002;360:57–8.
Katsuki A, Sumida Y, Murashima S. Serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha are increased in obese patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 1998;83:859–62.
Ruan H, Lodish HF. Insulin resistance in adipose tissue: direct and indirect effects of tumor necrosis factor-α. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2003;14:447–55.
Hotamisligil GS. Inflammatory pathways and insulin action. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003;27 Suppl 3:S53–5.
Hotamisligil GS, Shargill NS, Spiegelman BM. Adipose expression of tumor necrosis factor- α: direct role in obesity-linked insulin resistance. Science. 1993;259:87–91.
Ruan H, Miles PD, Ladd CM, et al. Profiling gene transcription in vivo reveals adipose tissue as an immediate target of tumor necrosis factor- α: implications for insulin resistance. Diabetes. 2002;51:3176–88.
Yudkin JS, Eringa E, Stehouwer CD. ‘Vasocrine’ signalling from perivascular fat: a mechanism linking insulin resistance to vascular disease. Lancet. 2005;365:1817–20.
Boyle PJ. What are the effects of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists on adiponectin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and other cytokines in insulin resistance? Clin Cardiol. 2004;27:1111–6.
Ridker PM, Rifai N, Pfeffer M, et al. Elevation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and increased risk of recurrent coronary events after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2000;101:2149–53.
Mohamed-Ali V, Pinkney JK. Adipose tissue as an endocrine and paracrine organ. I J Obes Relat Metab Dis. 1998;22:1145–58.
Mohamed-Ali V, Goodrick S, Rawesh A, et al. Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha, in vivo. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 1997;82:4196–200.
Fried SK, Bunkin DA, Greenberg AS. Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissues of obese subjects release interleukin-6. Depot difference and regulation by glucocorticoid. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 1998;83:847–50.
Wajchenberg BL. Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: their relation to the metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2000;21:697–738.
Fernandez-Real JM, Ricart W. Insulin resistance and chronic cardiovascular inflammatory syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2003;24:278–301.
Bastard JP, Jardel C, Bruckert E, et al. Elevated levels of interleukin 6 are reduced in serum and subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese women after weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2000;85:3338–42.
Tsigos C, Papanicolaou DA, Kyrou I, et al. Dose-dependent effects of recombinant human interleukin-6 on glucose regulation. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 1997;82:4167–70.
Senn JJ, Klover PJ, Nowak IA, et al. Suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (SOCS-3), a potential mediator of interleukin-6-dependent insulin resistance in hepatocytes. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:13740–6.
Rotter Sopasakis V, Larsson BM, et al. Short-term infusion of interleukin-6 does not induce insulin resistance in vivo or impair insulin signalling in rats. Diabetologia. 2004;47:1879–87.
De Benedetti F, Alonzi T, Moretta A, et al. Interleukin 6 causes growth impairment in transgenic mice through a decrease in insulin-like growth factor-I. A model for stunted growth in children with chronic inflammation. J Clin Invest. 1997;99:643–50.
Wallenius V, Wallenius K, Ahren B, et al. Interleukin-6-deficient mice develop matureonset obesity. Nat Med. 2002;8:75–9.
Van Harmelen V, Reynisdottir S, Cianflone K, et al. Mechanisms involved in the regulation of free fatty acid release from isolated human fat cells by acylation-stimulating protein and insulin. J Biol Chem. 1999;274:18243–51.
Cianflone K, Xia Z, Chen LY. Critical review of acylation-stimulating protein physiology in humans and rodents. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2003;1609:127–43.
Maslowska M, Vu H, Phelis S, et al. Plasma acylation stimulating protein, adipsin and lipids in non-obese and obese populations. Eur J Clin Investig. 1999;29:679–86.
Holcomb IN, Kabakoff RC, Chan B, et al. FIZZ1, a novel cysteine-rich secreted protein associated with pulmonary inflammation, defines a new gene family. EMBO J. 2000;19:4046–55.
Steppan CM, Bailey ST, Bhat S, et al. The hormone resistin links obesity to diabetes. Nature. 2001;409:307–12.
Banerjee RR, Lazar MA. Resistin: molecular history and prognosis. J Mol Med. 2003;81:218–26.
Steppan CM, Lazar MA. The current biology of resistin. J Int Med. 2004;255:439–47.
Rajala MW, Obici S, Scherer PE, et al. Adipose-derived resistin and gut-derived resistin-like molecule-beta selectively impair insulin action on glucose production. J Clin Investig. 2003;111:225–30.
Ukkola O. Resistin-a mediator of obesity-associated insulin resistance or an innocent bystander? Eur J Endocrinol. 2002;147:571–4.
Savage DB, Sewter CP, Klenk ES, et al. Resistin/Fizz3 expression in relation to obesity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-action in humans. Diabetes. 2001;50:2199–202.
Reilly MP, Lehrke M, Wolfe ML, et al. Resistin is an inflammatory marker of atherosclerosis in humans. Circulation. 2005;111:932–9.
Ghosh S, Singh AK, Aruna B, et al. The genomic organization of mouse resistin reveals major differences from the human resistin: functional implications. Gene. 2003;305:27–34.
Osawa H, Onuma H, Murakami A, et al. Systematic search for single nucleotide polymorphisms in the resistin gene. The absence of evidence for the association of three identified single nucleotide polymorphisms with Japanese type 2 diabetes. Diabetes. 2002;51:863–6.
Engert JC, Vohl MC, Williams SM, et al. 5′ Flanking variants of resistin are associated with obesity. Diabetes. 2002;51:1629–34.
Wang H, Chu WS, Hemphill C, et al. Human resistin gene: molecular scanning and evaluation of association with insulin sensitivity and type 2 diabetes in Caucasians. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol. 2002;87:2520–4.
Alessi MC, Peiretti F, Morange P, et al. Production of plasminogen activator inhibitor by human adipose tissue: possible link between visceral fat accumulation and vascular disease. Diabetes. 1997;46:860–7.
Bastelica D, Morange P, Berthet B, et al. Stromal cells are the main plasminogen activator inhibitor-1-producing cells in human fat: evidence of differences between visceral and subcutaneous deposits. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2002;22:173–8.
Mertens I, Van Gaal LF. Obesity, haemostasis and the fibrinolytic system. Obes Rev. 2002;3:85–101.
Juhan-Vague I, Alessi MC, Mavri A, et al. Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, inflammation, obesity, insulin resistance and vascular risk. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1:1575–9.
Ailhaud G, Fukamizu A, Massiera F, et al. Angiotensinogen, angiotensin II and adipose tissue development. Int J Obes Relat Metab Dis. 2000;24:S33–5.
Engeli S, Schling P, Gorzelniak K, et al. The adipose-tissue renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: role in the metabolic syndrome? Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2003;35:807–25.
Goossens GH, Blaak EE, van Baak MA. Possible involvement of the adipose tissue renin-angiotensin system in the pathophysiology of obesity and obesity-related disorders. Obes Rev. 2003;4:43–55.
Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C. A comparison of the effects of hydrochlorothiazide and captopril on glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:868–73.
Rubin GL, Zhao Y, Kalus AM, et al. Peroxisome proliferator receptor gamma ligands inhibit estrogen biosynthesis in human breast adipose tissue: possible implication for breast cancer therapy. Cancer Res. 2000;60:1604–8.
Seckl JR. 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: changing glucocorticoid action. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2004;4:597–602.
Belanger C, Luu-The V, Dupont P, et al. Adipose tissue intracrinology: potential importance of local androgen/estrogen metabolism in the regulation of adiposity. Horm Metab Res. 2002;34:737–45.
Meseguer A, Puche C, Cabero A. Sex steroid biosynthesis in white adipose tissue. Horm Metab Res. 2002;34:731–6.
Stulnig TM. WaldhauslW 11 β -Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2004;47:1–11.
Seckl JR, Walker BR. Mini review: 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1-a tissue-specific amplifier of glucocorticoid action. Endocrinology. 2001;142:1371–6.
Walker BR, Connacher AA, Lindsay RM, et al. Carbenoxolone increases hepatic insulin sensitivity in man: a novel role for 11- oxosteroid reductase in enhancing glucocorticoid receptor activation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1995;80:3155–9.
Xie QW, Kashiwabara Y, Nathan C. Role of transcription factor NF-B/Rel in induction of nitric oxide synthase. J Biol Chem. 1994;269:4705–8.
Goto M, Katayama KI, Shirakawa F, et al. Involvement of NF-B p50/p65 heterodimer in activation of the human prointerleukin-1β gene at two sub regions of the upstream enhancer element. Cytokine. 1999;11:16–28.
O’Rourke L, Gronning LM, Yeaman SJ. Glucose-dependent regulation of cholesterol ester metabolism in macrophages by insulin and leptin. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:42557–62.
Yudkin JS, Kumari M, Humphries SE. Inflammation, obesity, stress and coronary heart disease: is interleukin-6 the link? Atherosclerosis. 2000;148:209–14.
Ridker PM, Rifai N, Rose L, et al. Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1557–65.
Fukuhara A, Matsuda M, Nishizawa M. Visfatin: a protein secreted by visceral fat that mimics the effects of insulin. Science. 2005;307:426–30.
Stentz FB, Umpierrez GE, Cuervo R. Proinflammatory cytokines, markers of cardiovascular risks, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation in patients with hyperglycemic crises. Diabetes. 2004;53:2079–86.
Cai H, Li Z, Dikalov S, et al. NAD (P) H oxidase-derived hydrogen peroxide mediates endothelial nitric oxide production in response to angiotensin II. J Biol Chem. 2002;277:48311–7.
Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney JF, et al. The clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:1149–60.
Kawanami D, Maemura K, Takeda N, et al. Direct reciprocal effects of resistin and adiponectin on vascular endothelial cells: a new insight into adipocytokine–endothelial cell interactions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2004;314:415–9.
Verma S, Li SH, Wang CH. Resistin promotes endothelial cell activation: further evidence of adipokine–endothelial interaction. Circulation. 2003;108:736–40.
Jambrik Z, Venneri L, Varga A, et al. Peripheral vascular endothelial function testing for the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. Am Heart J. 2004;148:684–9.
Calabro P, Samudio I, Willerson JT, et al. Resistin promotes smooth muscle cell proliferation through activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathways. Circulation. 2004;110:3335–40.
Pinkney JH, Stehouwer CD, Coppack SW, et al. Endothelial dysfunction: cause of the insulin resistance syndrome. Diabetes. 1997;46:S9–13.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Imam, S.K. (2016). White Adipose Tissue: Beyond Fat Storage. In: Ahmad, S., Imam, S. (eds) Obesity. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19821-7_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19821-7_1
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-19820-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-19821-7
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)