Abstract
Maternal and newborn health are strongly linked. Infection is a recognized and prominent underlying cause of both maternal and newborn pathologies. Consequently, preventive strategies and many evidence-based interventions directed toward the mother can benefit both the mother and baby. Infection continues to account for a major proportion of maternal, fetal, and neonatal mortality and morbidity worldwide. About 40 % of maternal deaths result from infection while an additional 14.5 % of maternal deaths result from abortion, often with underlying sepsis causing death. Of the three major causes of neonatal deaths (infection, prematurity, intrapartum-related deaths), infection is responsible for 28 % and preterm birth complications are responsible for 14 %. Infection is both an underlying cause of preterm birth and a major cause of complications and death in mothers and babies.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Lassi ZS, Majeed A, Rashid S, Yakoob MY, Bhutta ZA. The interconnections between maternal and newborn health–evidence and implications for policy. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2013;26:3–53.
Bhutta ZA, Black RE. Global maternal, newborn, and child health–so near and yet so far. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:2226–35.
Wang H, Liddell CA, Coates MM, Mooney MD, Levitz CE, Schumacher AE, et al. Global, regional, and national levels of neonatal, infant, and under-5 mortality during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2013. Lancet. 2014;384:957–79.
Meads C. Screening for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy: external review against programme appraisal criteria for the UK National Screening Committee (UK NSC). Version: 2: UK National Screening Committee. 2011. Available from: http://www.screening.nhs.uk/policydb_download.php?doc=169.
Wing DA, Fassett MJ, Getahun D. Acute pyelonephritis in pregnancy: an 18-year retrospective analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014;210:219.e211–6.
Le J, Briggs GG, McKeown A, Bustillo G. Urinary tract infections during pregnancy. Ann Pharmacother. 2004;38:1692–701. Review.
Grabe M, Bartoletti R, Bjerklund-Johansen TE, Çek HM, Pickard RS, Tenke P, et al. Guidelines on urological infections: European Association of Urology. 2014. Available from: http://uroweb.org/wp-content/uploads/19-Urological-infections_LR.pdf.
Lee M, Bozzo P, Einarson A, Koren G. Urinary tract infections in pregnancy. Can Fam Physician Med Fam Can. 2008;54:853–4.
Verani JR, McGee L, Schrag SJ, Division of Bacterial Diseases NCfI, Respiratory Diseases CfDC, Prevention. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease – revised guidelines from CDC, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep Morb Mortal Wkly Rep Recomm Rep/Cent Dis Control. 2010;59:1–36.
Smaill FM, Vazquez JC. Antibiotics for asymptomatic bacteriuria in pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 2. Art. No.: CD000490. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD000490.pub2.
Sheffield JS, Cunningham FG. Community-acquired pneumonia in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2009;114:915–22.
Lim W, Macfarlane J, Colthorpe C. Pneumonia and pregnancy. Thorax. 2001;56:398–405.
Laibl VR, Sheffield JS. Influenza and pneumonia in pregnancy. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32:727–38.
Romero R, Hassan SS, Gajer P, Tarca AL, Fadrosh DW, Nikita L, et al. The composition and stability of the vaginal microbiota of normal pregnant women is different from that of non-pregnant women. Microbiome. 2014;2:4.
Brocklehurst P, Gordon A, Heatley E, Milan SJ. Antibiotics for treating bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;1:CD000262.
Yudin MH. Bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy: diagnosis, screening, and management. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32:617–27.
Bradshaw C, Morton A, Garland S, et al. Higher risk behavioural practices associated with bacterial vaginosis compared with vaginal candidiasis. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:105–14.
Blackwell AL. Vaginal bacterial phaginosis? Sex Transm Infect. 1999;75:352–3.
Amsel R, Totten PA, Spiegel CA, Chen KC, Eschenbach D, Holmes KK. Nonspecific vaginitis. Diagnostic criteria and microbial and epidemiologic associations. Am J Med. 1983;74:14–22.
Nugent RP, Krohn MA, Hillier SL. Reliability of diagnosing bacterial vaginosis is improved by a standardized method of Gram stain interpretation. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29:297–301.
Workowski KA, Berman S. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010;59:1–110.
Sobel JD. Vulvovaginal candidosis. Lancet. 2007;369:1961–71.
Foxman B, Muraglia R, Dietz JP, Sobel JD, Wagner J. Prevalence of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis in 5 European countries and the United States: results from an internet panel survey. J Low Genit Tract Dis. 2013;17:340–5.
Carr P, Felsenstein D, Friedman R. Evaluation and management of vaginitis. J Gen Intern Med. 1998;13:335–46.
Chaim W, Mazor M, Wiznitzer A. The prevalence and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection with candida species in women with preterm labor. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 1992;251:9–15.
Leibovitz E, Livshiz-Riven I, Borer A, Taraboulos-Klein T, Zamir O, Shany E, et al. A prospective study of the patterns and dynamics of colonization with Candida spp. In very low birth weight neonates. Scand J Infect Dis. 2013;45:842–8.
Therapeutic Guidelines. Vulvovaginal candidiasis [revised 2009, amended 2010]. Etg complete [internet]. Melbourne: Therapeutic Guidelines Limited; 2014.
Young G, Jewell D. Topical treatment for vaginal candidiasis (thrush) in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(4):CD000225.
Cassone A. Development of vaccines for Candida albicans: fighting a skilled transformer. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2013;11:884–91.
Kiss H, Petricevic L, Husslein P. Prospective randomised controlled trial of an infection screening programme to reduce the rate of preterm delivery. BMJ. 2004;329:371–5.
Van der Pol B. Trichomonas vaginalis infection: the most prevalent nonviral sexually transmitted infection receives the least public health attention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:23–5.
Gaydos CA, Hsieh YH, Barnes M, Quinn N, Agreda P, Jett-Goheen M, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in women who submit self-obtained vaginal samples after internet recruitment. Sex Transm Dis. 2011;38:828–32.
Cotch M, Pastorek J, Nugent R. Demographic and behavioural predictors of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among pregnant women. The vaginal infections and prematurity study group. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;78:1087–92.
Soper D. Trichomoniasis: under control or undercontrolled? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:281–90.
Risser WL, Bortot AT, Benjamins LJ, Feldmann JM, Barratt MS, Eissa MA, et al. The epidemiology of sexually transmitted infections in adolescents. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 2005;16:160–7.
Coleman JS, Gaydos CA, Witter F. Trichomonas vaginalis vaginitis in obstetrics and gynecology practice: new concepts and controversies. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2013;68:43–50.
Kissinger P, Adamski A. Trichomonas vaginalis and HIV interactions: a review. Sex Transm Infect. 2013;89:426–33.
Zhang ZF, Begg CB. Is Trichomonas vaginalis a cause of cervical neoplasia? Results from a combined analysis of 24 studies. Int J Epidemiol. 1994;23:682–90.
Huppert JS, Mortensen JE, Reed JL, Kahn JA, Rich KD, Miller WC, et al. Rapid antigen testing compares favorably with transcription-mediated amplification assay for the detection of Trichomonas vaginalis in young women. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:194–8.
Kirkcaldy RD, Augostini P, Asbel LE, Bernstein KT, Kerani RP, Mettenbrink CJ, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis antimicrobial drug resistance in 6 US cities, STD Surveillance Network, 2009–2010. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18:939–43.
Gulmezoglu AM, Azhar M. Interventions for trichomoniasis in pregnancy. The Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(5):CD000220.
Koss CA, Baras DC, Lane SD, Aubry R, Marcus M, Markowitz LE, et al. Investigation of metronidazole use during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:4800–5.
Lichtenstein B, Desmond RA, Schwebke JR. Partnership concurrency status and condom use among women diagnosed with Trichomonas vaginalis. Womens Health Issues. 2008;18:369–74.
Carey AJ, Beagley KW. Chlamydia trachomatis, a hidden epidemic: effects on female reproduction and options for treatment. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2010;63:576–86.
Somboonna N, Mead S, Liu J, Dean D. Discovering and differentiating new and emerging clonal populations of Chlamydia trachomatis with a novel shotgun cell culture harvest assay. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;14:445–53.
Braxton J, Carey D, Davis D, Footman A, Flagg E, Grier L, et al. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2012. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2014.
Peipert JF. Clinical practice. Genital chlamydial infections. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:2424–30.
Workowski KA, Berman S, Centers for Disease C, Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep Morb Mortal Wkly Rep Recom Rep/Cent Dis Control. 2010;59:1–110.
Holmes KK, Levine R, Weaver M. Effectiveness of condoms in preventing sexually transmitted infections. Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82:454–61.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted disease surveillance 2012. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2014.
Hafner LM, Wilson DP, Timms P. Development status and future prospects for a vaccine against Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Vaccine. 2014;32:1563–71.
Bourne C, Lahra MM, Donovan B. Gaining control of gonorrhoea. Med Today. 2014;15:58–60.
Brocklehurst P. Update on the treatment of sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy–1. Int J STD AIDS. 1999;10:571–8.
Edwards J, Apicella M. The molecular mechanisms used by Neisseria gonorrhoeae to initiate infection differ between men and women. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17:965–81.
Bignell CJ. European guidelines for the management of gonorrhea. Int J STD AIDS. 2001;12:27–9.
Hedges S, Mayo M, Mestecky J, et al. Limited local and systemic antibody response to Neisseria gonorrhoeae during uncomplicated genital infections. Infect Immun. 1999;67:3937–46.
Goire N, Lahra MM, Chen M, Donovan B, Fairley CK, Guy R, et al. Molecular approaches to enhance surveillance of gonococcal antimicrobial resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2014;12:223–9.
Newman L, Kamb M, Hawkes S, Gomez G, Say L, Seuc A, et al. Global estimates of syphilis in pregnancy and associated adverse outcomes: analysis of multinational antenatal surveillance data. PLoS Med. 2013;10:e1001396.
Patton ME, Su JR, Nelson R, Weinstock H, (CDC). Primary and secondary syphilis–United States, 2005–2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63:402–6.
Berman SM. Maternal syphilis: pathophysiology and treatment. Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82:433–8.
Zeltser R, Kurban AK. Syphilis. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:461–8.
Gomez GB, Kamb ML, Newman LM, Mark J, Broutet N, Hawkes SJ. Untreated maternal syphilis and adverse outcomes of pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bull World Health Organ. 2013;91:217–26.
Saloojee H, Velaphi S, Goga Y, Afadapa N, Steen R, Lincetto O. The prevention and management of congenital syphilis: an overview and recommendations. Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82:424–30.
Peeling RW, Ye H. Diagnostic tools for preventing and managing maternal and congenital syphilis: an overview. Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82:439–46.
Herremans T, Kortbeek L, Notermans DW. A review of diagnostic tests for congenital syphilis in newborns. Eur J Cli Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010;29:495–501.
Sena AC, White BL, Sparling PF. Novel Treponema pallidum serologic tests: a paradigm shift in syphilis screening for the 21st century. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:700–8.
Blencowe H, Cousens S, Kamb M, Berman S, Lawn JE. Lives saved tool supplement detection and treatment of syphilis in pregnancy to reduce syphilis related stillbirths and neonatal mortality. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:S9.
Schmid G. Economic and programmatic aspects of congenital syphilis prevention. Bull World Health Organ. 2004;82:402–9.
Hawkes S, Matin N, Broutet N, Low N. Effectiveness of interventions to improve screening for syphilis in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11:684–91.
Laibl VR, Sheffield JS. Tuberculosis in pregnancy. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32:739–47.
World Health Organization. Global tuberculosis report 2013. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.
Frieden TR, Sterling TR, Munsiff SS, Watt CJ, Dye C. Tuberculosis. Lancet. 2003;362:887–99.
Smith KC. Congenital tuberculosis: a rare manifestation of a common infection. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2002;15:269–74.
Mnyani CN, McIntyre JA. Tuberculosis in pregnancy. BJOG Int J Obstet Gynaecol. 2011;118:226–31.
Zenner D, Kruijshaar ME, Andrews N, Abubakar I. Risk of tuberculosis in pregnancy: a national, primary care-based cohort and self-controlled case series study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185:779–84.
Adhikari M. Tuberculosis and tuberculosis/HIV co-infection in pregnancy. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:234–40.
Tb CARE I. International standards for tuberculosis care. The Hague: TB CARE I; 2014.
Guerra RL, Hooper NM, Baker JF, Alborz R, Armstrong DT, Maltas G, et al. Use of the amplified Mycobacterium tuberculosis direct test in a public health laboratory: test performance and impact on clinical care. Chest. 2007;132:946–51.
Neralla S, Glassroth J. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: the treatment of active disease. Semin Respir Infect. 2003;18:292–306.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reported tuberculosis in the United States, 2012. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2013.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. TB elimination: tuberculosis and pregnancy. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2011.
Getahun H, Sculier D, Sismanidis C, Grzemska M, Raviglione M. Prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of tuberculosis in children and mothers: evidence for action for maternal, neonatal, and child health services. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:S216–27.
World Health Organization. The Stop TB Strategy: building on and enhancing dots to meet the TB-related millennium development goals. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2006.
Sitkiewicz I, Hryniewicz W. Pyogenic streptococci–danger of re-emerging pathogens. Pol J Microbiol. 2010;59:219–26.
Vlaminckx BJ, Schuren FH, Montijn RC, Caspers MP, Beitsma MM, Wannet WJ, et al. Dynamics in prophage content of invasive and noninvasive M1 and M28 Streptococcus pyogenes isolates in the Netherlands from 1959 to 1996. Infect Immunol. 2007;75:3673–9.
Brown EJ. The molecular basis of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:2093–4.
Maharaj D. Puerperal pyrexia: a review. Part i. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2007;62:393–9.
Hamilton SM, Stevens DL, Bryant AE. Pregnancy-related group A streptococcal infections: temporal relationships between bacterial acquisition, infection onset, clinical findings, and outcome. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:870–6.
Saab J, Bell SM, Lahra MM. Vaginal carriage rate of streptococcal pyogenes in 1600 pregnant women. Pathology. 2012;44:567–8.
Chuang I, Van Beneden C, Beall B, Schuchat A. Population-based surveillance for postpartum invasive group A Streptococcus infections, 1995–2000. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:665–70.
Mason KL, Aronoff DM. Postpartum group A Streptococcus sepsis and maternal immunology. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2012;67:91–100.
Ingham SC, Wadhera RK, Chu CH, DeVita MD. Survival of Streptococcus pyogenes on foods and food contact surfaces. J Food Prot. 2006;69:1159–63.
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Green-top guideline no. 64b: bacterial sepsis following pregnancy. Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, London: 2012. Available from: https://www.ranzcog.edu.au/doc/rcog-bacterial-sepsis-following-pregnancy.html.
NSW Agency for Clinical Information. Adult sepsis pathway. 2011. Available from: http://www.cec.health.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/259415/adult-sepsis-pathway-for-emergency-departments.pdf.
Stevens DL. Streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome: spectrum of disease, pathogenesis, and new concepts in treatment. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995;1:69–78.
Health Protection Agency Group A Streptococcus Working Group. Interim UK guidelines for management of close community contacts of invasive group A streptococcal disease. Commun Dis Public Health. 2004;7:354–61.
Steer JA, Lamagni T, Healy B, Morgan M, Dryden M, Rao B, et al. Guidelines for prevention and control of group a streptococcal infection in acute healthcare and maternity settings in the UK. J Infect. 2012;64:1–18.
New South Wales Department of Health. Factsheet: Maternal sepsis (Puerperal fever) due to Group A Streptococcus – information for clinicians. 2012. Available from: http://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/factsheets/Pages/Maternal_sepsis.aspx.
Queensland Health. Queensland Health Guidelines for Public Health Units: Invasive group A Streptococcal disease. 2012. Available from https://www.health.qld.gov.au/cdcg/index/igas.asp.
Bisharat N, Crook D, Leigh J, et al. Hyperinvasive neonatal group B Streptococcus has arisen from a bovine ancestor. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:2161–7.
Ohlsson A, Shah VS. Intrapartum antibiotics for known maternal Group B Streptococcal colonization. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;6:CD007467.
Edmond KM, Kortsalioudaki C, Scott S, Schrag SJ, Zaidi AK, Cousens S, et al. Group B streptococcal disease in infants aged younger than 3 months: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2012;379:547–56.
Jeffery HE. Perinatal group B streptococcal infection: a significant public health problem. Semin Neonatal. 1996;1:77–89.
Gibbs R, Schrag S, Schuchat A. Perinatal infections due to group B streptococci. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104:1062–76.
Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Risk factors for early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: estimation of odds ratios by critical literature review. Pediatrics. 1999;103:e77.
Puopolo KM, Draper D, Wi S, Newman TB, Zupancic J, Lieberman E, et al. Estimating the probability of neonatal early-onset infection on the basis of maternal risk factors. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e1155–63.
Baker CJ, Carey VJ, Rench MA, Edwards MS, Hillier SL, Kasper DL, et al. Maternal antibody at delivery protects neonates from early onset group B streptococcal disease. J Infect Dis. 2014;209:781–8.
Filleron A, Lombard F, Jacquot A, Jumas-Bilak E, Rodiere M, Cambonie G, et al. Group B streptococci in milk and late neonatal infections: an analysis of cases in the literature. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2014;99:F41–7.
Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Prevention of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal disease with selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. N Engl J Med. 1986;314:1665–9.
El Helali N, Giovangrandi Y, Guyot K, Chevet K, Gutmann L, Durand-Zaleski I. Cost and effectiveness of intrapartum group B Streptococcus polymerase chain reaction screening for term deliveries. Obstet Gynecol. 2012;119:822–9.
Jeffery HE, Lahra MM. Eight-year outcome of universal screening and intrapartum antibiotics for maternal group B streptococcal carriers. Pediatrics. 1998;101:E2.
Puopolo K, Madoff L, Eichenwald E. Early-onset group B streptococcal disease in the era of maternal screening. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1240–6.
Schrag SJ, Verani JR. Intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: experience in the United States and implications for a potential group B streptococcal vaccine. Vaccine. 2013;31:D20–6.
Baker CJ, Edwards MS. Group B streptococcal conjugate vaccines. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:375–8.
Moore MR, Schrag SJ, Schuchat A. Effects of intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis for prevention of group-B-streptococcal disease on the incidence and ecology of early-onset neonatal sepsis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:201–13.
Silver HM. Listeriosis during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1998;53:737–40.
Lamont RF, Sobel J, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kusanovic JP, Vaisbuch E, Kim SK, et al. Listeriosis in human pregnancy: a systematic review. J Perinat Med. 2011;39:227–36.
Centers for Disease C, Prevention. Vital signs: Listeria illnesses, deaths, and outbreaks – United States, 2009–2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:448–52.
Posfay-Barbe KM, Wald ER. Listeriosis. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:228–33.
Cossart P, Toledo-Arana A. Listeria monocytogenes, a unique model in infection biology: an overview. Microbes Infect/Inst Pasteur. 2008;10:1041–50.
Southwick F, Purich D. Mechanisms of disease, intracellular pathogenesis of listeriosis. N Engl J Med. 1996;334:770–6.
Mylonakis E, Paliou M, Hohmann EL, Calderwood SB, Wing EJ. Listeriosis during pregnancy: a case series and review of 222 cases. Medicine. 2002;81:260–9.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service. FSIS compliance guideline: controlling Listeria monocytogenes in post-lethality exposed ready-to-eat meat and poultry products. 2014. Available from: https://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fsis.usda.gov%2Fwps%2Fwcm%2Fconnect%2Fd3373299-50e6-47d6-a577-e74a1e549fde%2FControlling_LM_RTE_Guideline_0912%3FMOD%3DAJPERES&ei=9GCKVYDIJ4jn8AWUypvwCg&usg=AFQjCNE-cn4JFlpvrEfHOV_eUEMfZMd1Qw.
Luber P, Crerar S, Dufour C, Farber J, Datta A, Todd ECD. Controlling Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat foods: working towards global scientific consensus and harmonization – recommendations for improved prevention and control. Food Control. 2011;22:1535–49.
Jones JL, Kruszon-Moran D, Rivera HN, Price C, Wilkins PP. Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in the United States 2009–2010 and comparison with the past two decades. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2014;90:1135–9.
Dunn D, Wallon M, Peyron F, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of toxoplasmosis risk estimates for clinical counselling. Lancet. 1999;353:1829–33.
Kravetz J, Federman D. Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Am J Med. 2005;118:212–6.
Montoya JG, Rosso F. Diagnosis and management of toxoplasmosis. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32:705–26.
Foulon W, Pinon JM, Stray-Pedersen B, Pollak A, Lappalainen M, Decoster A, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis: a multicenter evaluation of different diagnostic parameters. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;181:843–7.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Parasites – toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection): resources for health professionals. 2014. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/health_professionals/index.html.
Li XL, Wei HX, Zhang H, Peng HJ, Lindsay DS. A meta analysis on risks of adverse pregnancy outcomes in Toxoplasma gondii infection. PLoS One. 2014;9:e97775.
Montoya JG, Liesenfeld O. Toxoplasmosis. Lancet. 2004;363:1965–76.
Paquet C, Yudin MH. Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy: prevention, screening, and treatment. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2013;35:78–81.
Lopez A, Dieta V, Wilson M, Navin TR, Jones JL. Preventing congenital toxoplasmosis. MMWR. 2000;49:59–69.
Opsteegh M, Kortbeek TM, Havelaar AH, van der Giessen JW. Intervention strategies to reduce human Toxoplasma gondii disease burden. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:101–7.
Desai M, ter Kuile FO, Nosten F, McGready R, Asamoa K, Brabin B, et al. Epidemiology and burden of malaria in pregnancy. Lancet Infect Dis. 2007;7:93–104.
World Health Organization. World malaria report: 2013. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.
Murray CJ, Rosenfeld LC, Lim SS, Andrews KG, Foreman KJ, Haring D, et al. Global malaria mortality between 1980 and 2010: a systematic analysis. Lancet. 2012;379:413–31.
Steketee RW, Nahlen BL, Parise ME, Menendez C. The burden of malaria in pregnancy in malaria-endemic areas. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001;64:28–35.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Malaria: biology. 2012. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/about/biology/.
Griffith KS, Lewis LS, Mali S, Parise ME. Treatment of malaria in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA. 2007;297:2264–77.
Steketee RW. Pregnancy, nutrition and parasitic diseases. J Nutr. 2003;133:1661S–7.
van Geertruyden JP, Thomas F, Erhart A, et al. The contribution of malaria in pregnancy to perinatal mortality. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004;71:35–40.
Fischer PR. Malaria and newborns. J Trop Pediatr. 2003;49:132–4
Duffy PE. Maternal immunization and malaria in pregnancy. Vaccine. 2003;21:3358–61.
Lindsay S, Ansell J, Selman C, Cox V, Hamilton K, Walraven G. Effect of pregnancy on exposure to malaria mosquitoes. Lancet. 2000;355:1972.
Newman RD, Hailemariam A, Jimma D, et al. Burden of malaria during pregnancy in areas of stable and unstable transmission in ethiopia during a nonepidemic year. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:1765–72.
Guyatt H, Snow R. Malaria in pregnancy as an indirect cause of infant mortality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2001;95:569–76.
Guyatt HL, Snow RW. Impact of malaria during pregnancy on low birth weight in sub-Saharan Africa. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17:760–9.
Brabin BJ, Romagosa C, Abdelgalil S, Menendez C, Verhoeff FH, McGready R, et al. The sick placenta-the role of malaria. Placenta. 2004;25:359–78.
World Health Organization. Guidelines for the treatment of malaria. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
World Health Organization. WHO policy brief for the implementation of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy using sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (IPTp-SP). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014. Available from: http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/atoz/iptp-sp-updated-policy-brief-24jan2014.pdf.
Arama C, Troye-Blomberg M. The path of malaria vaccine development: challenges and perspectives. J Intern Med. 2014;275:456–66.
Cotter C, Sturrock HJ, Hsiang MS, Liu J, Phillips AA, Hwang J, et al. The changing epidemiology of malaria elimination: new strategies for new challenges. Lancet. 2013;382:900–11.
Cossart YE, Field AM, Cant B, Widdows D. Parvovirus-like particles in human sera. Lancet. 1975;1:72–3.
Koch WC. Fifth (human parvovirus) and sixth (herpes virus 6) diseases. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2001;14:343–56.
Crowcroft NS, Roth CE, Cohen BJ, Miller E. Guidance for control of parvovirus B19 infection in healthcare settings and the community. J Public Health Med. 1999;21:439–46.
Lamont RF, Sobel JD, Vaisbuch E, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kim SK, et al. Parvovirus B19 infection in human pregnancy. BJOG. 2011;118:175–86.
Luo Y, Kleiboeker S, Deng X, Qiu J. Human parvovirus B19 infection causes cell cycle arrest of human erythroid progenitors at late S phase that favors viral DNA replication. J Virol. 2013;87:12766–75.
van Beers-Tas MH, Heidema J. Review: Pathogenesis of Parvovirus Infections in Children. Virol Mycol 2013;2:110. doi:10.4172/2161-0517.1000110.
Silingardi E, Santunione AL, Rivasi F, Gasser B, Zago S, Garagnani L. Unexpected intrauterine fetal death in parvovirus B19 fetal infection. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2009;30:394–7.
Giorgio E, De Oronzo MA, Iozza I, Di Natale A, Cianci S, Garofalo G, et al. Parvovirus B19 during pregnancy: a review. J Prenat Med. 2010;4:63–6.
Corcoran A, Doyle S. Advances in the biology, diagnosis and host-pathogen interactions of parvovirus B19. J Med Microbiol. 2004;53:459–75.
Anderson MJ, Higgins PG, Davis LR, et al. Experimental parvoviral infection in humans. J Infect Dis. 1985;152:257–65.
Young NS, Brown KE. Mechanisms of disease: parvovirus B19. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:586–97.
Staroselsky A, Klieger-Grossmann C, Garcia-Bournissen F, Koren G. Exposure to fifth disease in pregnancy. Can Fam Physician Med Fam Canad. 2009;55:1195–8.
Levy R, Weissman A, Blomberg G, Hagay ZJ. Infection by parvovirus B19 during pregnancy: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1997;​52:254–9.
Skjoldebrand-Sparre L, Tolfvenstam T, Papadogiannakis N, Wahren B, Broliden K, Nyman M. Parvovirus B19 infection: association with third-trimester intrauterine fetal death. BJOG. 2000;107:476–80.
Brown KE, Green SW, Antunez dMJ, et al. Congenital anemia after transplacental parvovirus B19 infection. Lancet. 1994;343:895–6.
Crane J, Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada. Parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2002;24:727–43.
The Royal Hospital for Women. Clinical policies, procedures & guidelines: parvovirus B19 screening and management in pregnancy. 2014. Available from: http://www.seslhd.health.nsw.gov.au/rhw/manuals/documents/Antenatal_Pregnancy%20Care/Parvovirus%20B19%20Screening%20and%20Management%20in%20pregnancy.pdf.
Servey JT, Reamy BV, Hodge J. Clinical presentations of parvovirus B19 infection. Am Fam Physician. 2007;75:373–6.
Valeur-Jensen AK, Pedersen CB, Westergaard T, Jensen IP, Lebech M, Andersen PK, et al. Risk factors for parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy. JAMA. 1999;281:1099–105.
Gregg NM. Congenital cataract following German measles in the mother. Trans Ophthalmol Soc Aust. 1941;3:35–46.
Maldonado YA. Varicella-zoster virus. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, editors. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 5th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 2000.
World Health Organization. Global measles and rubella strategic plan: 2012–2020. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2012.
World Health Organization. Fact sheet number 367: rubella. 2014. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs367/en/.
Plotkin SA. Rubella eradication. Vaccine. 2001;19:3311–9. Review.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Elimination of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome – United States, 1969–2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:279–82.
Cooper LZ, Krugman S. Clinical manifestations of postnatal and congenital rubella. Arch Ophthalmol. 1967;77:434–9.
Miller E, Cradock-Watson JE, Pollock TM. Consequences of confirmed maternal rubella at successive stages of pregnancy. Lancet. 1982;2:781–94.
Banatvala JE, Brown DW. Rubella. Lancet. 2004;363:1127–37.
World Health Organization. Surveillance guidelines for measles, rubella and congenital rubella syndrome in the WHO European region. Copenhagen: World Health Organization; 2012.
Reef SE, Plotkin S, Cordero JF, Katz M, Cooper L, Schwartz B, et al. Preparing for elimination of congenital rubella syndrome (CRS): summary of a workshop on CRS elimination in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:85–95.
Forrest JM, Turnbull FM, Sholler GF, Hawker RE, Martin FJ, Doran TT, et al. Gregg’s congenital rubella patients 60 years later. Med J Aust. 2002;177:664–7.
Atkinson W, Hamborsky J, Stanton A, Wolfe C, editors. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and prevention of vaccine-preventable diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington DC: Public Health Foundation; 2015.
King Edward Memorial Hospital. Clinical guidelines: 1.4.7 rubella in pregnancy. Perth; 2012. Government of Western Australia, Department of Health. Available from: http://kemh.health.wa.gov.au/development/manuals/O&G_guidelines/sectionb/1/b1.4.7.pdf.
Cannon MJ, Schmid DS, Hyde TB. Review of cytomegalovirus seroprevalence and demographic characteristics associated with infection. Rev Med Virol. 2010;20:202–13.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) and congenital CMV infection: congenital CMV infection trends and statistics. 2013. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/cmv/trends-stats.html.
Centers for Disease Control Prevention. Knowledge and practices of obstetricians and gynecologists regarding cytomegalovirus infection during pregnancy – United States, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:65–8.
Dollard SC, Grosse SD, Ross DS. New estimates of the prevalence of neurological and sensory sequelae and mortality associated with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Rev Med Virol. 2007;17:355–63.
Reynolds DW, Stagno S, Stubbs KG, Dahle AJ, Livingston MM, Saxon SS, et al. Inapparent congenital cytomegalovirus infection with elevated cord IgM levels. Casual relation with auditory and mental deficiency. N Engl J Med. 1974;290:291–6.
Bristow BN, O’Keefe KA, Shafir SC, Sorvillo FJ. Congenital cytomegalovirus mortality in the United States, 1990–2006. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1140.
Rahav G, Gabbay R, Ornoy A, Shechtman S, Arnon J, Diav-Citrin O. Primary versus nonprimary cytomegalovirus infection during pregnancy, Israel. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:1791–3.
Hollier LM, Grissom H. Human herpes viruses in pregnancy: cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, and varicella zoster virus. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32:671–96.
Varani S, Frascaroli G, Landini MP, Soderberg-Naucler C. Human cytomegalovirus targets different subsets of antigen-presenting cells with pathological consequences for host immunity: implications for immunosuppression, chronic inflammation and autoimmunity. Rev Med Virol. 2009;19:131–45.
Trincado DE, Rawlinson WD. Congenital and perinatal infections with cytomegalovirus. J Paediatr Child Health. 2001;37:187–92.
Cheeran MC, Lokensgard JR, Schleiss MR. Neuropathogenesis of congenital cytomegalovirus infection: disease mechanisms and prospects for intervention. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2009;22:99–126.
Ross SA, Novak Z, Pati S, Boppana SB. Overview of the diagnosis of cytomegalovirus infection. Infect Disord Drug Targets. 2011;11:466–74.
Bonalumi S, Trapanese A, Santamaria A, D’Emidio L, Mobili L. Cytomegalovirus infection in pregnancy: review of the literature. J Prenat Med. 2011;5:1–8.
McCarthy FP, Jones C, Rowlands S, Giles M. Primary and secondary cytomegalovirus in pregnancy. Obstet Gynaecol. 2009;11:96–100.
Kimberlin DW, Lin C, Sanchez PJ, et al. Effect of ganciclovir therapy on hearing impairment in symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus disease involving the central nervous system: a randomized, controlled trial. J Pediatr. 2003;143:16–25.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) and congenital CMV infection: prevention. 2010. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/cmv/prevention.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) and congenital CMV infection: at-risk patients. 2010. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/cmv/clinical/at-risk.html.
Manicklal S, Emery VC, Lazzarotto T, Boppana SB, Gupta RK. The “silent” global burden of congenital cytomegalovirus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2013;26:86–102.
Papaloukas O, Giannouli G, Papaevangelou V. Successes and challenges in varicella vaccine. Ther Adv Vaccines. 2014;2:39–55.
Zerboni L, Sen N, Oliver SL, Arvin AM. Molecular mechanisms of varicella zoster virus pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2014;12:197–210.
Whitely RJ. Varicella-zoster virus. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R, editors. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 5th ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 2000. p. 1580–6.
Smith CK, Arvin AM. Varicella in the fetus and newborn. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14:209–17.
Enders G, Miller E, Cradock-Watson J, Bolley I, Ridehalgh M. Consequences of varicella and herpes zoster in pregnancy: prospective study of 1739 cases. Lancet. 1994;343:1548–51.
Preblud SR, Bregman DJ, Vernon LL. Deaths from varicella in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis. 1985;4:503–7.
Sauerbrei A, Wutzler P. Neonatal varicella. J Perinatol. 2001;21:545–9.
RodrĂguez-Fanjul X, Noguera A, Vicente A, González-Enseñat MA, JimĂ©nez R, Fortuny C. Herpes zoster in healthy infants and toddlers after perinatal exposure to varicella-zoster virus: a case series and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:574–6.
Shrim A, Koren G, Yudin MH, Farine D, MFM Committee. Management of varicella infection (chickenpox) in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2012;34:287–92.
Therapeutic Guidelines. Varicella (chicken pox) (revised 2014). Etg complete [internet]. Melbourne: Therapeutic Guidelines Limited; 2014.
American Academy of Pediatrics. Varicella zoster infection. In: Pickering LK, editor. Red book online 2003: report of the committee on infectious diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003. p. 672–86.
Flagg EW, Weinstock H. Incidence of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections in the United States, 2006. Pediatrics. 2011;127:e1–8.
Batra D, Davies P, Manktelow BN, Smith C. The incidence and presentation of neonatal herpes in a single UK tertiary centre, 2006–2013. Arch Dis Child. 2014;99:916–21.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC fact sheet – genital herpes. 2013. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/std/herpes/stdfact-herpes-detailed.htm.
Bradley H, Markowitz LE, Gibson T, McQuillan GM. Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2–United States, 1999–2010. J Infect Dis. 2014;209:325–33.
Looker KJ, Garnett GP, Schmid GP. An estimate of the global prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. Bull World Health Organ. 2008;86:805–812, A.
Wald A. Genital HSV-1 infections. Sex Transm Infect. 2006;82:189–90.
Kimberlin DW. AAP clarifies approach to babies born to women with genital herpes lesions. AAP News. 2013;34:30.
James SH, Sheffield JS, Kimberlin DW. Mother-to-child transmission of herpes simplex virus. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc. 2014;3:S19–23.
Mertz GJ, Benedetti J, Ashley R, Selke SA, Corey L. Risk factors for the sexual transmission of genital herpes. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116:197–202.
Brown ZA, Benedetti J, Ashley R, et al. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection in relation to asymptomatic maternal infection at the time of labor. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:796–800.
Brown ZA, Wald A, Morrow RA, et al. Effect of serologic status and cesarean delivery on transmission rates of herpes simplex virus from mother to infant. JAMA. 2003;289:203–9.
Arvin AM, Hensliegh PA, Prober CG, et al. Failure of antepartum maternal cultures to predict the infant’s risk of exposure to herpes simplex at delivery. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:796–800.
Hill J, Roberts S. Herpes simplex virus in pregnancy: new concepts in prevention and management. Clin Perinatol. 2005;32:657–70.
Natale F, Bizzarri B, Castronovo A, Russo A, Bartolucci M, Pedicino R, et al. Neonatal herpes simplex infection. Early Hum Dev. 2013;89:S73–5.
Kimberlin DW. Neonatal herpes simplex infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2004;17:1–13.
Whitely RJ, Corey L, Arvin A, et al. Changing presentation of herpes simplex virus infection in neonates. J Infect Dis. 1988;158:109–16.
Enright AM, Prober CG. Herpesviridae infections in newborns: varicella zoster virus, herpes simplex virus, and cytomegalovirus. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2004;51:889–908.
White DO, Fenner FJ. Herpes simplex viruses in Herpesviridae. Medical virology. 4th ed. San Diego: Academic; 1994. p. 323–30.
Dasgupta G, Chentoufi AA, Kalantari M, Falatoonzadeh P, Chun S, Lim CH, et al. Immunodominant “asymptomatic” herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 protein antigens identified by probing whole-orfome microarrays with serum antibodies from seropositive asymptomatic versus symptomatic individuals. J Virol. 2012;86:4358–69.
Kimberlin DW, Lin CY, Jacobs RF, Powell DA, Frenkel LM, Gruber WC, et al. Natural history of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections in the acyclovir era. Pediatrics. 2001;108:223–9.
Nahmias AJ. Neonatal hsv infection. Part 1: Continuing challenges. Herpes. 2004;11:33–7.
Pinninti SG, Kimberlin DW. Management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infection and exposure. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2014;99:F240–4.
Singh A, Preiksaitis J, Ferenczy A, Romanowski B. The laboratory diagnosis of herpes simplex virus infections. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol. 2005;16:92–8.
Allen UD, Robinson JL. Prevention and management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Paediatr Child Health. 2014;19:201–12.
Runnegar N. HSV in pregnancy. Obstet Gynaecol Mag. 2012;14:18–9.
Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2 infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. AIDS. 2006;20:73–83.
Sharp PM, Hahn BH. Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2011;1:a006841.
Moodley J, Moodley D. Management of human immunodeficiency virus infection in pregnancy. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2005;19:169–83. Review.
Campbell-Yesufu OT, Gandhi RT. Update on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-2 infection. Clin Infect Diseas. 2011;52:780–7.
Engelman A, Cherepanov P. The structural biology of HIV-1: mechanistic and therapeutic insights. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10:279–90.
Coffin J, Swanstrom R. HIV pathogenesis: dynamics and genetics of viral populations and infected cells. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2013;3:a012526.
Nyamweya S, Hegedus A, Jaye A, Rowland-Jones S, Flanagan KL, Macallan DC. Comparing HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection: lessons for viral immunopathogenesis. Rev Med Virol. 2013;23:221–40.
American Academy of Pediatrics. Red book online. Elk Grove Village: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2012. Available from: http://redbook.solutions.aap.org/.
National HIV Testing Policy Expert Reference Committee. 2011 National HIV Testing Policy v1.3: Australasian Society for HIV Medicine. 2013.
Loutfy MR, Margolese S, Money DM, Gysler M, Hamilton S, Yudin MH, et al. Canadian HIV pregnancy planning guidelines. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2012;34:575–90.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preexposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV infection in the United States – 2014. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2014.
European AIDS Clinical Society. European AIDS Clinical Society: HIV treatment guidelines. Version 7.0. 2013.
Williams I, Churchill D, Anderson J, Boffito M, Bower M, Cairns G, et al. British HIV Association guidelines for the treatment of HIV-1-positive adults with antiretroviral therapy 2012 (updated november 2013.) HIV Med. 2014;15:1–85.
Ioannidis JP, Abrams EJ, Ammann A, Bulterys M, Goedert JJ, Gray L, et al. Perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by pregnant women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/ml. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:539–45.
World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
George, C.R.R., Lahra, M.M., Jeffery, H.E. (2015). The Impact of Infection During Pregnancy on the Mother and Baby. In: Khong, T.Y., Malcomson, R.D.G. (eds) Keeling’s Fetal and Neonatal Pathology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19207-9_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19207-9_9
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-19206-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-19207-9
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)