Abstract
When disaster strikes, sacred dimensions of life are commonly brought to the forefront. This chapter explores the complex and dynamic ways in which religion and spirituality are embedded in the posttraumatic recovery process. We discuss the impact of religion and spirituality on people’s understandings of traumatic events, the selection of methods to cope with adversity and the coping methods themselves, and the short- and long-term outcomes of trauma. The chapter concludes with a summary of ways in which religion and spirituality can be integrated into the posttraumatic recovery process, accompanied by promising outcome data from spiritually--integrated intervention studies. We highlight a dual approach to religious/spiritual coping that includes maximizing the use of positive religious/spiritual coping resources and resolving posttraumatic religious/spiritual struggles. The information presented in this chapter is applicable to the work of researchers, clinicians, clergy, helping professionals, and paraprofessionals who are interested in the roles religion and spirituality might play in preventing enduring posttraumatic problems and enhancing lasting posttraumatic growth.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Ai, A. L., Peterson, C., & Huang, B. (2003). The effect of religious spiritual coping on positive attitudes of adult Muslim refugees from Kosovo and Bosnia. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 12, 29–47. doi:10.1207/S15327582IJPR1301_04.
Alam, E., & Collins, A. E. (2010). Cyclone disaster vulnerability and response experiences in coastal Bangladesh. Disasters, 34, 931–954. doi:10.1111/j.03613666.2010.01176.x.
Ano, G. G., & Vasconcelles, E. B. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61, 461–480. doi:10.1002/jclp.20049.
Aten, J. D. (2012). Disaster spiritual and emotional care in professional psychology: A Christian integrative approach. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 40, 131–135.
Aten, J. D., Moore, M., Denney, R. M., Bayne, T., Stagg, A., Owens, S., et al. (2008). God images following hurricane Katrina in south Mississippi: An exploratory study. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 36, 249–257. http://journals.biola.edu/jpt/volumes/36/issues/4/articles/249. Accessed 5 May 2014.
Aten, J. D., Topping, S., Denney, R., & Hosey, J. (2011). Helping African American clergy and churches address minority disaster mental health disparities: Training needs, model, and example. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3, 15–23. doi:10.1037/a0020497.
Bormann, J. E., Gifford, A. L., Shively, M., Smith, T. L., Redwine, L., Kelly, A., et al. (2006). Effects of spiritual mantram repetition on HIV outcomes: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 359–376. doi:10.1007/s10865-006-9063-6.
Bragg, R. (19 April 1996). A year of sorrow—A special report: Blast toll is no longer in deaths, but in shattered lives. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com. Accessed 24 May 2014.
Broadway, B. (8 Jan 2005). Divining a reason for devastation: Followers of various faiths differ on natural, supernatural explanations for tsunami. Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A57758-2005Jan7.html. Accessed 19 May 2014.
Bulman, R. J., & Wortman, C. B. (1977). Attributions of blame and coping in the “real world”: Severe accident victims react to their lot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 351–363. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.5.351.
Cole, B. S. (2005). Spiritually-focused psychotherapy for people diagnosed with cancer: A pilot outcome study. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 8, 217–226. doi:10.1080/13694670500138916.
Cotton, S., Puchalski, C. M., Sherman, S. N., Mrus, J. M., Peterman, A. H., Feinberg, J., et al. (2006). Spirituality and religion in patients with HIV/AIDS. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21, S5–S13. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1497.2006.00642.x.
DeMaris, A., Mahoney, A., & Pargament, K. I. (2010). Sanctification of marriage and general religiousness as buffers of the effects of marital inequity. Journal of Family Issues, 31, 1255–1278. doi:10.1177/0192513X10363888.
Denney, R. M., Aten, J. D., & Leavell, K. (2011). Posttraumatic spiritual growth: A phenomenological study of cancer survivors. Mental Health, Religion, & Culture, 14, 371–391. doi:10.1080/13674671003758667.
Dumas, J., & Nissley-Tsiopinis, J. (2006). Parental global religiousness, sanctification of parenting, and positive and negative religious coping as predictors of parental and child functioning. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 16, 289–310. doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1604_4.
Durkheim, E. (1915). The elementary forms of the religious life. New York: Free Press.
Exline, J. J. (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J.W. Jones (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (Vol. 1: Context, theory, and research) (pp. 459–475). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Exline, J. J., Park, C. L., Smyth, J. M., & Carey, M. P. (2011). Anger toward God: Five foundational studies emphasizing predictors, doubts about God’s existence, and adjustment to bereavement and cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 129–148.
Fallot, R. D., & Heckman, J. P. (2005). Religious/spiritual coping among women trauma survivors with mental health and substance use disorders. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 32, 215–226. doi:10.1007/BF02287268.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Coping as a mediator of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 466–475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.3.466.
Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. F. (2004). Coping: Pitsfalls and promise. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 745–774. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141456.
Gall, T. L., & Cornblat, M. W. (2002). Breast cancer survivors give voice: A qualitative analysis of spiritual factors in long-term adjustment. Psycho-Oncology, 11, 524–535. doi:10.1002/pon.613.
Gallup. (2 June 2014). Religion: Gallup historical trends. http://www.gallup.com/poll/1690/religion.aspx. Accessed 2 June 2014.
Garrison, M. E. B., & Sasser, D. D. (2009). Families and disasters: Making meaning out of adversity. In K. E. Cherry (Ed.), Lifespan perspectives on natural disasters: Coping with Katrina, Rita, and other storms (pp. 113–130). New York: Springer.
Gerber, M. M., Boals, A., & Schuettler, D. (2011). The unique contributions of positive and negative religious coping to posttraumatic growth and PTSD. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3, 298–307. doi:10.1037/a0023016.
Hawley, A. R. (2012). The roles of spirituality and sexuality in response to romantic breakup (Master’s thesis). https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap/10?0::NO:10:P10_ACCESSION_NUM:bgsu1344123203. Accessed 5 May 2014.
Hawley, A. R., & Mahoney, A. (2013). Romantic breakup as a sacred loss and desecration among Christians at a state university. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 32, 245–260. http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/92531510/romantic-breakup-as-sacred-loss-desecration-among-christians-state-university. Accessed 14 May 2014.
Henderson, T. L., Roberto, K. A., & Kamo, Y. (2010). Older adults’ responses to hurricane Katrina: Daily hassles and coping strategies. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 29, 48–69. doi:10.1177/0733464809334287.
Jones, J. W. (2002). Terror and transformation: The ambiguity of religion in psychoanalytic perspective. New York: Bruman-Routledge.
Koenig, H. G., Pargament, K. I., & Nielsen, J. (1998). Religious coping and health status in medically ill hospitalized older adults. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186, 513–521. doi:10.1097/00005053-199809000-00001.
Krumrei, E. J. (2008). A longitudinal analysis of the role of religious appraisals and religious coping in adults’ adjustment to divorce (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3324024).
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Lichter, D. T., & Carmalt, J. H. (2009). Religion and marital quality in low-income couples. Social Science Review, 38, 168–187. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.07.003.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Jewell, T., Swank, A. B., Scott, E., Emery, E., et al. (1999). Marriage and the spiritual realm: The role of proximal and distal religious constructs in marital functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 13, 1–18. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.13.3.321.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Ano, G., Lynn, Q., Magyar, G., McCarthy, S., et al. (2002, August). The devil made them do it? Desecration & demonization in response to the 9/11 attacks. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL.
Mahoney, A., Carels, R. A., Pargament, K. I., Wachholtz, A., Leeper, L. E., Kaplar, M., et al. (2005a). The sanctification of the body and behavioral health patterns of college students. The International Journal of the Psychology of Religion, 15, 221–238. doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1503_3.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Jewell, T., Magyar, G. M., Tarakeshwar, N., et al. (2005b). A higher purpose: The sanctification of strivings in a community sample. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 239–262. doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1503_4.
Mahoney, A., Krumrei, E. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2008). Broken vows: Divorce as a spiritual trauma and its implications for growth and decline. In S. Joseph & P. Alex Linley (Eds.), Trauma, recovery, and growth: Positive psychological perspectives on posttraumatic stress (pp. 105–124). New Jersey: Wiley.
Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., & DeMaris, A. (2009). Couples viewing marriage and pregnancy through the lens of the sacred: A descriptive study. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 20, 1–45. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004175624.i-334.7.
Marks, L. D., Cherry, K. E., & Silva, J. L (2009). Faith, crisis, coping, and meaning making after Katrina: A qualitative, cross-cohort examination. In K. E. Cherry (Ed.), Lifespan perspectives on natural disasters: Coping with Katrina, Rita, and other storms (pp. 195–215). New York: Springer.
Murphy, S. A., Johnson, C., & Lohan, J. (2003). Finding meaning in a child’s violent death: A five-year prospective analysis of parents’ personal narratives and empirical data. Death Studies, 27, 381–404. doi:10.1080/07481180390208621.
Murray-Swank, A., Mahoney, A., & Pargament, K. I. (2006). Sanctification of parenting: Links to corporal punishment and parental warmth among biblically conservative and liberal mothers. The International Journal of the Psychology of Religion, 16, 271–287. doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1604_3.
Murray-Swank, N. A., & Pargament, K. I. (2005). God, where are you? Evaluating a spiritually-integrated intervention for sexual abuse. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 8, 191–203. doi:10.1080/13694670500138866.
Murray-Swank, N. A., Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2005). At the crossroads of sexuality and spirituality: The sanctification of sex by college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 199–219. doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1503_2.
Oemig Dworsky, C. K., Pargament, K. I., Gibbel, M. R., Krumrei, E. J., Faigin, C. A., Haugen, M. R. G., et al. (2012). Winding road: Preliminary support for a spiritually integrated intervention addressing college students’ spiritual struggles. Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion, 24, 309–240. doi:10.1163/9789004252073_013.
O’Grady, K. A., Rollison, D. G., Hanna, T. S., Schreiber-Pan, H., & Ruiz, M. A. (2012). Earthquake in Haiti: Relationship with the sacred in times of trauma. Journal of Psychology & Theology, 40, 289–301. http://journals.biola.edu/jpt/volumes/40/issues/4/articles/289. Accessed 7 May 2014.
Paden, W. E. (1992). Interpreting the sacred: Ways of viewing religion. Boston: Beacon.
Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, practice. New York: Guilford.
Pargament, K. I. (2007). Spiritually integrated psychotherapy: Understanding and addressing the sacred. New York: Guilford.
Pargament, K. I. & Mahoney, A. (2005). Sacred matters: Sanctification as vital topic for the psychology of religion. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 179–198. doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr1503_1.
Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal of the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 711–725. doi:10.2307/1388152.
Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G. & Perez, L. M. (2000). The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 519–543. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(200004)56:4<519::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-1.
Pargament, K. I., McCarthy, S., Shah, P., Ano, G., Tarakeshwar, N., Wachholtz, A., et al. (2004a). Religion and HIV: A review of the literature and clinical implications. Southern Medical Journal, 97, 1201–1209. doi:10.1097/01.SMJ.0000146508.14898.E2.
Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., Tarakeshwar, N., & Hahn, J. (2004b). Religious coping methods as predictors of psychological, physical and spiritual outcomes among medically ill elderly patients: A two-year longitudinal study. Journal of Health Psychology, 9, 713–730. doi:10.1177/1359105304045366.
Pargament, K. I., Magyar, G. M., Benore, E. & Mahoney, A. (2005). Sacrilege: A study of sacred loss and desecration and their implications for health and well-being in a community sample. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44, 59–78. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00265.x.
Pargament, K. I., Falb, M. D., Ano, G. G., & Wachholtz, A. B. (2013a). The religious dimension of coping: Advances in theory, research, and practice. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (2nd ed., pp. 560–79). New York: Guilford.
Pargament, K. I., Mahoney, A., Exline, J. J., Jones, J., & Shafranske, E. (2013b). Envisioning an integrative paradigm for the psychology of religion and spirituality: An introduction to the APA handbook of psychology, religion and spirituality. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, J. Jones, A. Mahoney, & E. Shafranske (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality, (vol. 1, pp. 3–20).Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
Park, C. L. (2013). Religion and meaning. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 357–379). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Paton, D., Gregg, C. E., Houghton, B. F., Lachman, R., Lachman, J., Johnston, D. M., et al. (2008). The impact of the 2004 tsunami on coastal Thai communities: Assessing adaptive capacity. Disasters, 32, 106–119. doi:10.1111/j.0361-3666.2007.01029.x.
Phillips, R. E., III, Cheng, C. M., Pargament, K. I., Oemig, C., Colvin, S. D., Abarr, A. N., et al. (2009). Spiritual coping in American Buddhists: An exploratory study. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 19, 231–243. doi:10.1080/10508610903143263.
Piper, J. (29 Dec 2004). Tsunami, sovereignty, and mercy. http://www.desiringgod.org/articles/tsunami-sovereignty-and-mercy. Accessed 20 May 2014.
Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2009). Optimism, social support, and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 14, 364–388. doi:10.1080/15325020902724271.
Raiya, H. A., Pargament, K. I., Mahoney, A., & Stein, C. (2008). A psychological measure of Islamic religiousness: Development and evidence for reliability and validity. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 18, 291–315. doi:10.1080/10508610802229270.
Rosmarin, D. H., Pargament, K. I., Krumrei, E. J., & Flannelly, K. J. (2009). Religious coping among Jews: Development and initial validation of the JCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 670–683. doi:10.1002/jclp.20574.
Schuster, M. A., Stein, B. D., Jaycox, L. H., Collins, R. L., Marshall, G. N., Elliot, M. N., et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1507–1512. doi:10.1056/NEJM200111153452024.
Silva, J. L., Marks, L. D., & Cherry, K. E. (2009). The psychology behind helping and prosocial behaviors: An examination from intention to action. In K. E. Cherry (Ed.), Lifespan perspectives on natural disasters: Coping with Katrina, Rita, and other storms (pp. 219–240). New York: Springer.
Smith, T. B., Bartz, J., & Richards, P. S. (2007). Outcomes of religious and spiritual adaptations to psychotherapy: A meta-analytic review. Psychotherapy Research, 17, 643–655. doi:10.1080/10503300701250347.
Tarakeshwar, N., Swank, A. B., Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2001). The sanctification of nature and theological conservatism: A study of opposing religious correlates of environmentalism. Review of Religious Research, 42, 387–404. doi:10.2307/3512131.
Tarakeshwar, N., Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2003). Initial development of a measure of religious coping among Hindus. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 607–628. doi:10.1002/jcop.10071.
Tarakeshwar, N., Pearce, M. J., & Sikkema, K. J. (2005). Development and implementation of a spiritual coping group intervention for adults living with HIV/AIDS: A pilot study. Mental Health, Religion, & Culture, 8, 179–190. doi:10.1080/13694670500138908.
Tuason, M. T. G., Güss, C. D., & Carroll, L. (2012). The disaster continues: A qualitative study on the experiences of displaced hurricane Katrina survivors. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 288–297. doi:10.1037/a0028054.
Varley, E., Isaranuwatchai, W., & Coyte, P. C. (2012). Ocean waves and roadside spirits: Thai health service providers’ post-tsunami psychosocial health. Disasters, 36, 656–675. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7717.2012.01274.x.
Volling, B. L., Mahoney, A., & Rauer, A. J. (2009). Sanctification of parenting, moral socialization, and young children’s conscience development. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 1, 53–68. doi:10.1037/a0014958.
Wachholtz, A. B., & Pargament, K. I. (2008). Migraines and meditation: Does spirituality matter? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 31, 351–366. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9159-2.
Walsh, F. (2007). Traumatic loss and major disasters: Strengthening family and community resilience. Family Process, 46, 207–227. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2007.00205.x.
Wrzesniewski, A., McCauley, C., Rozin, P., & Schwartz, B. (1997). Jobs, careers, and callings: People’s relations to their work. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 21–33. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1997.2162.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Harper, A., Pargament, K. (2015). Trauma, Religion, and Spirituality: Pathways to Healing. In: Cherry, K. (eds) Traumatic Stress and Long-Term Recovery. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18866-9_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18866-9_19
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-18865-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-18866-9
eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)