Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychosocial Consequences: Appraisal, Adaptation, and Bereavement After Trauma

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Traumatic Stress and Long-Term Recovery

  • 2987 Accesses

Abstract

Traumatic life events can affect a wide range of psychosocial consequences for survivors. In this chapter, we discuss the process of coping with trauma and posttraumatic adaptation. Social cognitive theory is proposed as a comprehensive theoretical framework able to account for various observations of posttrauma sequelae and guide further research. The human capacity to engage in self-evaluation and exercise agency to regulate behaviors are key components to adaptive coping. Coping self-efficacy (CSE) has emerged as a consistent and strong predictor of posttraumatic stress symptoms and other outcomes. Studies have supported the role of CSE following diverse types of traumatic events and in a variety of populations and posttraumatic contexts. Low CSE is associated with elevated levels of distress and poor outcomes, and high CSE is associated with lower levels of distress and more adaptive outcomes. CSE beliefs have also been shown to mediate the relationship between other key predictors of posttraumatic distress such as social support, loss of resources, and maladaptive posttraumatic cognitions. CSE beliefs are modifiable and may serve as a target for intervention following trauma to enhance the capacity for successful posttraumatic adaptation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, J. J., & Bonanno, B. A. (2001). I can, I do, I am: The narrative differentiation of self-efficacy and other self-evaluations while adapting to bereavement. Journal of Research in Personality, 35, 424–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1129–1148.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., & Harper, M. L. (2002). Coping self-efficacy perceptions as a mediator between acute stress response and long-term distress following natural disasters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 177–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Antoni, M. H., Kilbourn, K., Ironson, G., Kumar, M. A., Fletcher, M. A., Redwine, L., Baum, A., & Scheiderman, N. (1997). Coping self-efficacy buffers psychological and physiological disturbances in HIV-infected men following a natural disaster. Health Psychology, 16(3), 248–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Ironson, G., Klebe, K., Carver, C., Wynings, C., Greenwood, D., et al. (1999a). Conservation of resources and coping self-efficacy predicting distress following a natural disaster: A causal model analysis where the environment meets the mind. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 12, 107–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Swift, E., Sanger, J., Smith, A., & Zeppelin, D. (1999b). Coping self-efficacy as a prime mediator of distress following a natural disaster. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 2443–2464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Freyaldenhoven, R. W., Hughes, J., Ruiz, J. M., & Zoschke, T. A. (2000). Coping self-efficacy and psychological distress following the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(7), 1331–1344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Flores, J., & Tashiro, T. (2001). Bereavement coping self-efficacy in cancer widows. Death Studies, 25, 97–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Harding-Taylor, A., Midboe, A. M., & Durham, R. (2004). Psychometric validation of a domestic violence coping self-efficacy measure. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 505–508.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benight, C. C., Cieslak, R., Molton, I. R., & Johnson, L. E. (2008). Self-evaluative appraisals of coping capability and posttraumatic distress following motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Counsulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 677–685.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bonanno, G. A. & Mancini, A. D. (2012). Beyond resilience and PTSD: Mapping the heterogeneity of responses to potential trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4, 74–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, H. D., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit area survey of trauma. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 626–632.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., & Holmes, E. B. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 339–376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Dalgeish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103(4), 670–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cervone, D. (2000). Thinking about self-efficacy. Behavior Modification, 24, 30–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cieslak, R., Benight, C. C., & Lehman V. C. (2008). Coping self-efficacy mediates the effects of negative cognitions on traumatic distress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 788–798.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cieslak, R., Benight, C. C., Luszczynska, A., & Laudenslager, M. L. (2011). Longitudinal relationships between self-efficacy, posttraumatic distress and salivary cortisol among motor vehicle accident survivors. Stress and Health, 27(3), 261–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dutton, M. A., Green, B. L., Kaltman, S. I., Roesch, D. M., Zeffiro, T. A., & Krause E. D. (2006). Intimate partner violence, PTSD, and adverse health outcomes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(7), 955–968.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erbes, C., Westermeyer, J., Engdahl, B., & Johnsen, E. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and service utilization in a sample of service members from Iraq and Afghanistan. Military Medicine, 172, 359–363.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(4), 839–852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J.F. (2004). Coping: Pitsfalls and promise. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 745–774.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golding, J. M. (1999). Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 14(2), 99–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guay, S., Billette, V., & Marchand. A. (2006). Exploring the links between posttraumatic stress disorder and social support: Processes and potential research avenues. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19(3), 327–338.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Helgeson, V. S., Reynolds, K. A., & Tomich, P. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797–816.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschel, M. J., & Schulenberg, S. E. (2009). Hurricane Katrina’s impact on the Mississippi Gulf Coast: General self-efficacy's relationship to PTSD prevalence and severity. Psychological Services, 6(4), 293–303. doi:10.1037/a0017467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (1991). Traumatic stress: A theory based on rapid loss of resources. Anxiety Research, 4, 187–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 337–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jakupcak, M., Luterek, J., Hunt, S., Conybeare, D., & McFall, M. (2008). Posttraumatic stress and its relationship to physical health functioning in a sample of Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans seeking postdeployment VA health care. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196(5), 425–428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansen, V. A., Wahl, A. K., Eilertsen, D., & Weisaeth, L. (2007). Prevalence and predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in physically injured victims of non-domestic violence: A longitudinal study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 42(7), 583–593. doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0205-0

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H. S., Best, C. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 19–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, J. E., Benight, C. C., Wong, T., & Johnson, L. E. (2013). Cognitive bias in the interpretation of physiological sensations, coping self-efficacy, and psychological distress after intimate partner violence. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(5), 494–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowe, S. R., Tracy, M., Cerdá, M., Norris, F. H., & Galea, S. (2013). Immediate and longer-term stressors and the mental health of Hurricane Ike survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(6), 753–761. doi:10.1002/jts.21872

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). The general self-efficacy scale: Multicultural validation studies. The Journal of Psychology, 139(5), 439–457.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Benight, C. C., & Cieslak, R. (2009a). Self-efficacy and health-related outcomes of collective trauma. European Psychologist, 14(1), 51–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luszczynska, A., Benight, C. C., Cieslak, R., Kissinger, P., Reilly, K. H., & Clark, R. A. (2009b). Self-efficacy mediates effects of exposure, loss of resources, and life stress on posttraumatic distress among trauma survivors. Applied Psychology: Health and Well- Being, 1(1), 73–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maddux, J. E. (1995). Self-efficacy theory: An introduction. In J. E. Maddux (Ed.) Self-efficacy, adaptation, and adjustment (pp. 3–36). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(3), 409–418.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F. H., Friedman, M. J., Watson, P. J., Byrne, C. M., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65(3), 207–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F. H., Slone, L. B., Baker, C. K., & Murphy, A. D. (2006). Early physical health consequences of disaster exposure and acute disaster-related PTSD. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 19(2), 95–110. doi:10.1080/10615800600652209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pace, T. W. W., & Heim, C. M. (2011). A short review on the psychoneuroimmunology of posttraumatic stress disorder: From risk factors to medical comorbidities. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25, 6–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., & Ai, A. L. (2006). Meaning making and growth: New directions for research on survivors of trauma. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11, 389–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality, 64(1), 71–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramchand, R., Schell, T. L., Karney, B. R., Osilla, K. C., Burns, R. M., & Calderone, L. B. (2010). Disparate prevalence estimates of PTSD among service members who served in Iraq and Afghanistan: Possible explanations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(1), 59–68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhatigan, D. L., Shorey, R. C., & Nathanson, A. M. (2011). The impact of posttraumatic symptoms on women's commitment to a hypothetical violent relationship: A path analytic test of posttraumatic stress, depression, shame, and self-efficacy on investment model factors. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3(2), 181–191. doi:10.1037/a0020646

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seal, K. H., Metzler, T. J., Gima, K. S., Bertenthal, D., Maguen, S., & Marmar, C. (2009). Trends and risk factors for mental health diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan veterans using Department of Veteran Affairs health care, 2002–2008. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1651–1658.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 601–630.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. J., Benight, C. C., & Cieslak, R. (2013). Social support and postdeployment coping self-efficacy of distress among combat veterans. Military Psychology, 25(5), 452–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., Weisenberg, M., Schwarzwald, J., & Mikulincer, M. (1988). Combat stress reaction and posttraumatic stress disorder as determinants of perceived self-efficacy in battle. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 356–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., Benbenishty, B. B., & Mikulincer, M. (1991). The contribution of wartime, pre- war, and post-war factors to self-efficacy: A longitudinal study of combat stress reaction. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 345–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sundin, J., Fear, N. T., Iversen, A., Rona, R. J., & Wessely, S. (2010). PTSD after deployment to Iraq: Conflicting rates, conflicting claims. Psychological Medicine, 40, 367–282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L., G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, J. T., Wilk, J. E., Riviere, L. A., McGurk, D., Castro, C. A., & Hoge, C. W. (2010). The prevalence of mental health problems and functional impairment among active component and national guard soldiers 3 and 12 months following combat in Iraq. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 614–623.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, S. C., Schlehofer, M. M., Bovin, M. J., Dougan, B. T., Montes, D., & Trifskin, S. (2006). Dispositions, control strategies, and distress in the general public after the 2001 terrorist attack. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 19(2), 143–159. doi:10.1080/10615800600615891.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kelsey, R. M., & Leitten, C. L. (1993). Subjective, physiological, and behavioral effects of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 248–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiedenfeld, S. A., O'Leary, A., Bandura, A., Brown, S., Levine, S., & Raska, K. (1990). Impact of perceived self-efficacy in coping with stressors on components of the immune system. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(5), 1082–1094. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.1082.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Kent State University, 44242, Kent, OH, USA

    Edward E. Waldrep MA

  2. Department of Psychology, Trauma Health & Hazards Center, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, 4017 Columbine Hall, 80918, Colorado Springs, CO, USA

    Charles C. Benight PhD

Authors
  1. Edward E. Waldrep MA
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Charles C. Benight PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Edward E. Waldrep MA .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Louisiana State University Dept. Psychology, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA

    Katie E. Cherry

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Waldrep, E., Benight, C. (2015). Psychosocial Consequences: Appraisal, Adaptation, and Bereavement After Trauma. In: Cherry, K. (eds) Traumatic Stress and Long-Term Recovery. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18866-9_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation