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Long Term Measurement of Muon-Induced Neutrons at LSM

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Production Yield of Muon-Induced Neutrons in Lead

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Abstract

As it was discussed in Sect. 3.7, the reliability of MC simulations of neutron production via atmospheric muons at underground sites has an uncertainty of up to a factor two. The actual agreement between simulation and measurement depends on the location of the measurement and the precision of the detector model.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For the following text, a muon telescope is defined as two muon counters in coincidence with each other and separated by a given distance.

  2. 2.

    Albeit the physical meaning is similar to the interaction length \(\lambda _\mathrm {int}\) defined by Eq. 3.5 in the context of shower development, the actual definition is slightly different, as \(\lambda _\mathrm {s}\) is not scaled by the medium’s density \(\rho \).

  3. 3.

    That is, no orbital angular momentum is transferred from the incident neutron to the compound nucleus [5].

  4. 4.

    Position 4 in [70, table2]. The neutron counter was installed after the \(\mathrm {^3He}\) measurement.

  5. 5.

    This measurement was analysed four times, resulting in different values for the fast neutron (\(E_\mathrm {n} {}>{1} \,\mathrm{MeV}\)) flux: \({4 \times 10^{-6}}{\mathrm{cm}^{-2} \mathrm{s}^{-1}}\) [15], \({1.6 \times 10^{-6}}{\mathrm{cm}^{-2} \mathrm{s}^{-1}}\) [14], \({1.1 \times 10^{-6}}{\mathrm{cm}^{-2} \mathrm{s}^{-1}}\) [53], \({1.06 \times 10^{-6}}{\mathrm{cm}^{-2} \mathrm{s}^{-1}}\) [20].

  6. 6.

    This is equivalent to a perpendicular column density of \(X = {113.42}\,{\mathrm{g}\,\mathrm{cm}^{-2}}\).

  7. 7.

    Steel of type S 235 JR, standardized in DIN EN 10 025.

  8. 8.

    1,2,4-trimethylbenzene.

  9. 9.

    BC-525 (Saint-Gobain Crystals, 104 Route de Larchant, BP 521, 77794 Nemours Cedex, France).

  10. 10.

    The chemical formulation of an organic liquid scintillator loaded with gadolinium is complicated: The metal must form an organo-metallic complex via ligands (complexing agents) like carboxylic acids. Carboxylic acids with long carbon chains are more organic-like and thus their organo-complex are easier to solve in the solvent. However, increasing the weight percent of the organo-metallic complex in this way reduces the weight percentage of the organic solvent that determines the light yield [81]. According to [81, p. 331] the best compromise between an easy solubility of gadolinium in pseudocumene on one hand and a high light yield on the other hand is 2-methylvaleric acid. Also, care must be taken to stabilize the scintillator: The synthesis of the organo-metallic complex from gadolinium oxide, opposite to the synthesis from gadolinium nitrate, increase the stability against solid-liquid phase separation when the scintillator is exposed to air [66, 81]. According to [81, p. 330] the oxidation of the organic liquid by the used \({\mathrm{Gd(NO}_{3})_{3}}\) likely caused the degeneracy of the scintillator in the CHOOZ experiment.

  11. 11.

    Gadolinium 2-ethylhexanoate \({[\mathrm{Gd(CH}_{3}\mathrm{(CH}_{2})_{3}\mathrm{CH(C}_{2}\mathrm{H}_{5})\mathrm{CO}_{2})_{3} \cdot \mathrm{xH}_{2}\mathrm{O}]}\), synthesised from gadolinium oxide \({\mathrm{Gd}_{2}\mathrm{O}_{3}}\).

  12. 12.

    The chemical formulation used in [66] ([81]) is: 0.1 % w/w (0.2 % w/w) of gadolinium complexed by carboxylic acid, solved in pseudocumene, diluted by 60 % v/v of mineral oil (80 % v/v of dodecane).

  13. 13.

    It is also common to bubble liquid scintillators with nitrogen, but by gadolinium loaded liquid scintillators it can cause the precipitation of the gadolinium compound out of the solution [66, p. 394].

  14. 14.

    Hamamatsu Photomultiplier Tube R5912 (HAMAMATSU PHOTONICS K.K., Electoron Tube centre 314-5, Shimokanzo, Toyooka-village, Iwata-gun, Shizuoka-ken, 438-0193, Japan).

  15. 15.

    LeCroy 1440, (LeCroy Research Systems SA, Avenue Louis-Casa 81, case postale 43, 1216 Cointrin-Geneva, Switzerland), out of production.

  16. 16.

    Modules 1 to 22 and 25 to 48 constitute the actual muon veto, the modules 50 and 51 were the muon telescope; no modules 23, 24, and 49 exist.

  17. 17.

    BC-412 (Saint-Gobain Crystals).

  18. 18.

    Photonis XP2262 (PHOTONIS France S.A.S, Avenue Roger Roncier, 19100 Brive La Gaillarde, France).

  19. 19.

    The measurement was performed by a student during a summer internship.

  20. 20.

    RLT420-3-30 (Roithner Lasertechnik, Schönbrunner Straße 7, 1040 Vienna, Austria).

  21. 21.

    Modules 7, 8, 15, and 16.

  22. 22.

    Standardized in ANSI/IEEE 1014-1987, for an overview see e.g. [78].

  23. 23.

    Standardized in ANSI/IEEE 583-1982, for an overview see e.g. [30].

  24. 24.

    UEV 6023 9U bin, UEL 6020 LX-Fan tray, Modulare VHF switcher Stromversorgung UEP 6021 (wiener—Plein & Baus GmbH, Müllersbaum 20, 51399 Burscheid, Germany).

  25. 25.

    CCA-2 Type A-2 Crate Controller (Hytec Electronics Ltd., 5 Cradock Road, Reading, Berkshire, RG2 0JT, England).

  26. 26.

    CBD 8210 CAMAC Branch Driver (Creative Electronic Systems, 70, Route du Pont-Butin, P.O. Box 107, CH-1213 PETIT-LANCY 1, Switzerland).

  27. 27.

    PCI to VME Interface (wiener).

  28. 28.

    CAMAC Model 4434—32-Channel, 24-Bit Scaler (LeCroy), out of production.

  29. 29.

    Development of the Institute for Data Processing and Electronics (IPE) at the KIT, for a detailed description see [24].

  30. 30.

    Model 4413—16-Channel CAMAC Discriminator (LeCroy), out of production.

  31. 31.

    Mod.V512—8 Ch 4 Fold Programmable Logic Unit (CAEN).

  32. 32.

    For the definition of the signal levels used in Nuclear Instrumentation Modules see [76].

  33. 33.

    Development of the IPE at the KIT, for a detailed description see [24].

  34. 34.

    Mod.V767—128 Ch. General Purpose Multihit TDC (CAEN S.p.A., Via Vetraia, 11, 55049—Viareggio, Italy).

  35. 35.

    Often the TDC units are called TDC channels, this naming is rejected in this work to prevent confusion with the input channels of the TDC.

  36. 36.

    Mod.V792N—32 Ch QDCs (CAEN).

  37. 37.

    Again, the naming ADC channels is rejected to prevent confusion with the input channels of the ADC.

  38. 38.

    Mod. V830 series—32 Channel Latching Scalers (CAEN).

  39. 39.

    Mod.V895B—16 Channel Leading Edge Discriminators (CAEN).

  40. 40.

    As an internal test pulser is used, the veto signals (green) shown in Fig. 4.8a have obviously no effect on the signals from the first trigger level (red).

  41. 41.

    Model 1176—16 Channel VME TDC (LeCroy), out of production.

  42. 42.

    Model 1182—VME Multiple Input Charge ADC (LeCroy), out of production.

  43. 43.

    Mod.VX1720—8 Channel 12 bit 250MS/s Digitizer (CAEN).

  44. 44.

    Given in samples (S) per second, i.e. S \(\mathrm {s}^{-1}\).

  45. 45.

    Standardized in IEEE 1003.1c-1995.

  46. 46.

    Based on the single muon flux of \({5.47(10) \times 10^{-5}}{\mathrm{m}^{-2} \mathrm{s}^{-1}}\) [6] and a perpendicular detector cross section of 2 m\(^{2}\).

  47. 47.

    For example, if a sequence of three hits occurs at times 10, 200 and 220 ns the last two hits are removed, even if the third hit is separated from the first by more than 200 ns.

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Kluck, H. (2015). Long Term Measurement of Muon-Induced Neutrons at LSM. In: Production Yield of Muon-Induced Neutrons in Lead. Springer Theses. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18527-9_4

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