Abstract
The esophagus is a dynamic conduit, which connects the oral cavity to the stomach. Esophageal secretions and antegrade peristalsis enable the passage of solids and liquids toward the stomach. Conversely, the esophagus enables prompt expulsion of gastrointestinal content during vomiting and passively with gastric reflux. The pediatric esophagus is subject to a number of congenital and acquired disorders. In this chapter, we review the embryology, applied anatomy, and diagnostic imaging appearances related to the normal pediatric esophagus and in infants and children with esophageal disease.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
ACR (2014) ACR–SPR Practice parameter for the performance of contrast esophagrams and upper gastrointestinal examinations in infants and children. http://www.acr.org/~/media/A77716DEDE5C486EA73F2249D578FD39.pdf. Accessed 16 May 2015
ACR–SNM–SPR (2014) Practice parameter for the performance of gastrointestinal scintigraphy (2014) http://www.acr.org/~/media/26E5C0B4D8C2471FA7229E7B3B25DFF2.pdf. Accessed 18 Mar 2015
Al-Assiri A, Wiseman N, Bunge M (2005) Prenatal diagnosis of intrathoracic stomach (gastric herniation). J Pediatr Surg 40:E15–E17. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2004.10.006
Al-Bassam A, Saquib Mallick M, Al-Qahtani A et al (2007) Thoracoscopic division of vascular rings in infants and children. J Pediatr Surg 42:1357–1561
Alsenaidi K, Gurofsky R, Karamlou T et al (2006) Management and outcomes of double aortic arch in 81 patients. Pediatrics 118:e1336–e1341. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1097
Amae S, Nio M, Kamiyama T (2003) Clinical characteristics and management of congenital esophageal stenosis:a report on 14 cases. J Pediatr Surg 38:565–570
Anderson SH, Meenan J, Williams KN, Eady RA et al (2004) Efficacy and safety of endoscopic dilation of esophageal strictures in epidermolysis bullosa. Gastrointest Endosc 59:28–32
Backer CL, Mavroudis C, Rigsby CK, Holinger LD (2005) Trends in vascular ring surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 139:1339–1347
Baker CJ (2013) HIV infection. In: Red book atlas of pediatric infectious diseases, 2nd edn. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL, pp 230–231
Bansal S, Rothenberg SS (2014) Evaluation of laparoscopic management of recurrent gastroesophageal reflux disease and hiatal hernia: long term results and evaluation of changing trends. J Pediatr Surg 49:72–75
Berrocal T, Torres I, Guttierrez J et al (1999) Congenital anomalies of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Radiographics 19:855–872
Betalli P, Falchetti D, Giuliani S et al (2008) Caustic ingestion in children: is endoscopy always indicated? The results of an Italian multicenter observational study. Gastrointest Endosc 68:434–439
Binkovitz LA, Lorenz EA, Di Lorenzo C, Kahwash S (2010) Pediatric eosinophilic esophagitis: radiologic findings with pathologic correlation. Pediatr Radiol 40:714–719
Binkovitz LA, El-Youssef M, Glaser KJ et al (2012) Pediatric MR elastography of hepatic fibrosis: principles, technique and early clinical experience. Pediatr Radiol 42:402–409
Bonnard A, Auber F, Fourcade L et al (2003) Vascular ring abnormalities: a retrospective study of 62 cases. J Pediatr Surg 38:539–543
Brown JC, Baik FM, Ou HC et al (2014) Upper aerodigestive magnetic foreign bodies in children. Laryngoscope 124:1481–1485
Brumbaugh DE, Colson SB, Sandoval JA et al (2011) Management of button battery-induced hemorrhage in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 52:585–589
Campanozzi A, Boccia G, Pensabene L et al (2009) Prevalence and natural history of gastroesophageal reflux. Pediatrics 123:779–783
Cetinkurşun OH, Celasun B et al (1995) Epidermolysis bullosa associated with pyloric, esophageal, and anal atresia: a case report. J Pediatr Surg 30:1477–1478
Cheng W, Tam PKH (1999) Foreign-body ingestion in children: experience with 1,265 cases. J Pediatr Surg 34:1472–1476
Chongsrisawat V, Vejapipat P, Siripon N et al (2011) Transient elastography for predicting esophageal/gastric varices in children with biliary atresia. BMC Gastroenterol 11:41–45
Cooper T, Kuruvilla G, Persad R, El-Hakim H (2012) Atypical croup: association with airway lesions, atopy, and esophagitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 147:209–214
Dantas RO, Dodds WJ, Massey BT, Kern MK (1989) The effect of high- vs low-density barium preparations on the quantitative features of swallowing. AJR Am J Roentgenol 153:1191–1195
DeMatteo C, Matovich D, Hjartarson A (2005) Comparison of clinical and video fluoroscopic evaluation of children with feeding and swallowing difficulties. Dev Med Child Neurol 47:149–157
Demirogullari B, Sonmez K, Turkyilmaz Z et al (2001) Colon interposition for esophageal stenosis in a patient with epidermolysis bullosa. J Pediatr Surg 36:1861–1863
Ethun CG, Fallon SC, Cassady C et al (2014) Fetal MRI improves diagnostic accuracy in patients referred to a fetal center for suspected esophageal atresia. J Pediatr Surg 49:712–715
Fasulakis S, Andronikou S (2003) Balloon dilatation in children for oesophageal strictures other than those due to primary repair of oesophageal atresia, interposition or restrictive fundoplication. Pediatr Radiol 33:682–687
Felix JF, Tibboel D, de Klein A (2007) Chromosomal anomalies in the aetiology of oesophageal atresia and tracheo-oesophageal fistula. Eur J Med Genet 50:163–175
Felix JF, de Jong EM, Torfs CP et al (2009) Genetic and environmental factors in the etiology of esophageal atresia and/or tracheoesophageal fistula: an overview of the current concepts. Birt Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 85:747–754
Fernbach SK (1994) In: Gore RM, Levine MS, Laufer I (eds). Esophagus. WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp 1380–1497
Fine J, Mellerio JE (2009) Extracutaneous manifestations and complications of inherited epidermolysis bullosa. Part I. Epithelial associated tissues. J Am Acad Dermatol 61:367–384
Fraser CD Jr, Carberry KE (2012) Congenital heart disease. In: Townsend CM Jr, Beauchamp RD, Evers BM, Mattox KL (eds) Sabiston textbook of surgery, 19th edn. Saunders, Philadelphia, chap 59
Gander JW, Berdon WE, Cowles RA (2009) Iatrogenic esophageal perforation in children. Pediatr Surg Int 25:395–401
Gibbs JM, Chandrasekhar CA, Ferguson EC, Oldham SAA (2007) Lines and stripes: where did they go? —From conventional radiography to CT. RadioGraphics 27:33–48
Gimenez A, Franquet T, Erasmus JJ et al (2002) Thoracic complications of esophageal disorders. Radiographics Spec No: S247–258
Gross RE (1953) The surgery of infancy and childhood. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 75–102
Hallal C, Kieling CO, Nunes DL et al (2012) Diagnosis, misdiagnosis, and associated diseases of achalasia in children and adolescents: a twelve-year single center experience. Pediatr Surg Int 28:1211–1217
Harned RK, Strain JD, Hay TC, Douglas MR (1997) Esophageal foreign bodies: safety and efficacy of Foley catheters extraction of coins. AJR Am J Roentgenol 168:443–446
Heran MK, Baird R, Blair GK et al (2008) Topical mitomycin-C for recalcitrant esophageal strictures: a novel endoscopic/fluoroscopic technique for safe endoluminal delivery. J Pediatr Surg 43:815–818
Herman TE, Oser AB, McAlister WH (1991) Tubular communicating duplications of esophagus and stomach. Pediatr Radiol 21:494–496
Hochart V, Verpillat P, Langlois C et al (2015) The contribution of fetal MR imaging to the assessment of oesophageal atresia. Eur Radiol 25:306–314
Holland AJA, Fitzgerald DA (2010) Oesophageal atresia and tracheo-oesophageal fistula: current management strategies and complications. Paediatr Respir Rev 11:100–107
Hryhorczuk AL, Lee EY, Eisenberg RL (2013) Esophageal abnormalities in pediatric patients. AJR Am J Roentgenol 201:W519–W532. doi:10.2214/AJR.12.9291
Hussain SZ, Thomas R, Tolia V (2002) A review of achalasia in 33 children. Dig Dis Sci 47:2538–2543
Issaivanan M, Redner A, Weinstein T et al (2012) Esophageal carcinoma in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 34:63–67
Jadcherla SR, Duong HK, Hofmann C et al (2005) Characteristics of upper esophageal sphincter and esophageal body during maturation in healthy human neonates compared with adults. Neurogastroenterol Motil 17:663–670
Kahrilas PJ, Kim HC, Pandolfino JE (2008) Approaches to the diagnosis and grading of hiatal hernia. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 22:601–616
Kalache KD, Chaoui R, Mau H (1998) The upper neck pouch sign: a prenatal sonographic marker for esophageal atresia. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 11:138–140
Karasick S, Lev-Toaff AS (1995) Esophageal strictures: findings on barium radiographs. AJR Am J Roentgenol 165:561–565
Kern IB, Eisenberg M, Willis S (1989) Management of oesophageal stenosis in epidermolysis bullosa dystrophica. Arch Dis Child 64:551–556
Koumanidou C, Vakaki M, Pitsoulakis G et al (2004) Sonographic measurement of the abdominal esophagus length in infancy: a diagnostic tool for gastroesophageal reflux. AJR Am J Roentgenol 183:801–807
Kovesi T, Rubin S (2004) Long-term complications of congenital esophageal atresia and/or tracheoesophageal fistula. Chest 126:915–925
Kramer SS (1989) Radiologic examination of the swallowing impaired child. Dysphagia 3:117–125
Kramer RE, Quiros JA (2010) Esophageal stents for severe strictures in young children: experience, benefits, and risks. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 12:203–210
Kubiak R, Andrews J, Grant HW (2011) Long-term outcome of laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication compared with laparoscopic Thal fundoplication in children: a prospective, randomized study. Ann Surg 253:44–49
Kulkarni B, Rao RS, Oak S, Upadhyaya MA (1997) 13 pairs of ribs – a predictor of long-gap atresia in tracheoesophageal fistula. J Pediatr Surg 32:1453–1454
Kuo B, Urma D (2006) Esophagus – anatomy and development. GI Motility online (2006). doi:10.1038/gimo6 Available online http://www.nature.com/gimo/contents/pt1/full/gimo6.html. Accessed 24 Jan 2015
Ladd WE (1944) The surgical treatment of esophageal atresia and tracheoesophageal fistulas. N Engl J Med 230:625–637
Lee CW, Kays DW, Chen MK et al (2010) Outcomes of treatment of childhood achalasia. Pediatr Surg 45:1173–1177
Lefton-Greif MA, Arvedson JC (2007) Pediatric feeding and swallowing disorders: state of health, population trends, and application of the international classification of functioning, disability, and health. Semin Speech Lang 28:161–165
Lévesque D, Baird R, Laberge JM (2013) Refractory strictures post-esophageal atresia repair: what are the alternatives? Dis Esophagus 26:382–387
Liacouras CA, Furuta GT, Hirano I (2011) Eosinophilic esophagitis: updated consensus recommendations for children and adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol 128:3–20
Macharia EW (2012) Comparison of upper gastrointestinal contrast studies and pH/impedance tests for the diagnosis of childhood gastro-oesophageal reflux. Ped Radiol 42:946–951
Martinez L, Rivas S, Hernandez F et al (2003) Aggressive conservative treatment of esophageal perforations in children. J Pediatr Surg 38:685–689
Matsuo K, Palmer JB (2008) Anatomy and physiology of swallowing. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 19:691–707
McGuirt WF Jr (2003) Gastroesophageal reflux and the upper airway. Pediatr Clin North Am 50:487–502
Mercado-Deane MG, Burton EM, Harlow SA et al (2001) Swallowing dysfunction in infants less than 1 year of age. Pediatr Radiol 31:423–428
Michaud L, Coutenier F, Podevin G et al (2013) Characteristics and management of congenital esophageal stenosis: findings from a multicenter study. Orphanet J Rare Dis 8:186, Accessed December 12 2014
Miller JL, Kang SM (2007) Preliminary ultrasound observation of lingual movement patterns during nutritive versus non-nutritive sucking in a premature infant. Dysphagia 22:150–160
Newman B, Bender TM (1997) Esophageal atresia/tracheo- esophageal fistula and associated congenital esophageal stenosis. Pediatr Radiol 27:530–534
Newman LA, Keckley C, Petersen MC, Hammer A (2001) Swallowing function and medical diagnoses in infants suspected of dysphagia. Pediatrics 108, E106. doi:10.1542/peds.108.6.e106
Nihoul-Fekete C, DeBacker A, Lortat-Jacob S et al (1987) Congenital esophageal stenosis: a review of 20 cases. Pediatr Surg Int 2:86–92
Pedersen RN, Calzolari E, Husby S, Garne E (2012) EUROCAT Working group Oesophageal atresia: prevalence, prenatal diagnosis and associated anomalies in 23 European regions. Arch Dis Child 97:227–232
Prasse JE, Kikano GE (2009) An overview of pediatric dysphagia. Clin Pediatr 48:247–251
Rosen R (2014) Gastroesophageal reflux in infants more than just a pHenomenon. JAMA Pediatr 168:83–89
Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS et al (2001) Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 32(Suppl 2):S1–S31
Sadler TW (2012) Ch 15: Digestive tract. In: Langmans medical embryology, 12th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, pp 208–210
Savino A, Cecamore C, Matronola MF et al (2012) US in the diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux in children. Pediatr Radiol 42:515–524
Sharieff GQ, Brousseau TJ, Bradshaw JA, Shad JA (2003) Acute esophageal coin ingestion: is immediate removal necessary? Pediatr Radiol 33:859–863
Sharma S, Nezakatgoo N, Sreenivasan P et al (2009) Foregut cystic developmental malformation: new taxonomy and classification – Unifying embryopathological concepts. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 52:461–472
Shaw-Smith CJ (2006) Oesophageal atresia, tracheo-oesophageal fistula, and the VACTERL association: review of genetics and epidemiology. J Med Genet 43:545–554
Shinkawa T, Greenberg SB, Jaquiss RD, Imamura M (2012) Primary translocation of aberrant left subclavian artery for children with symptomatic vascular ring. Ann Thorac Surg 93:1262–1265
Soon IS, Butzner JD, Kaplan GG, deBruyn JC (2013) Incidence and prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 57:72–80
Spitz L (2007) Oesophageal atresia. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2:24. doi:10.1186/1750-1172-2-24 accessed May 9 2015
Srikanth MS, Ford EG, Stanley P et al (1992) Communicating bronchopulmonary foregut malformations: classification and embryogenesis. J Pediatr Surg 27:732–736
Stoll C, Alembik Y, Dott B, Roth MP (2009) Associated malformations in patients with esophageal atresia. Eur J Med Genet 52:287–290
Sugandhi N, Sharma P, Agarwala S et al (2011) Esophageal lung: presentation, management and review of literature. J Pediatr Surg 46:1634–1637
Takubo K (2009) Embryology and developmental disorders of the esophagus in pathology of the esophagus: an atlas and textbook. Springer, Tokyo, pp p1–p3
Towbin AJ, Diniz LO (2012) Schatzki ring in pediatric and young adult patients. Pediatr Radiol 42:1437–1440
Turner A, Gavel G, Coutts J (2005) Vascular rings-presentation, investigation and outcome. Eur J Pediatr 164:266–670
Vakil N, van Zanten SV, Kahrilas P et al (2006) Global Consensus Group. The Montreal definition and classification of gastroesophageal reflux disease: a global evidence- based consensus. Am J Gastroenterol 101:1900–1920
van Bokhoven H, Celli J, van Reeuwijk J et al (2005) MYCN haploinsufficiency is associated with reduced brain size and intestinal atresias in Feingold syndrome. Nat Genet 37:465–467
Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C et al (2009) Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 49:498–547
Vasudevan SA, Kerendi F, Lee H et al (2002) Management of congenital esophageal stenosis. J Pediatr Surg 37:1024–1026
Vazquez JL, Buonomo C (1999) Feeding difficulties in the first days of life: findings on upper gastrointestinal series and the role of videofluoroscopic swallowing study. Pediatr Radiol 29:894–896
Vogt EC (1929) Congenital esophageal atresia. Am J Roentgenol 22:463–465
Walor D, Berdon W, Anderson N et al (2005) Gaseous distention of the cervical esophagus with nasal CPAP: mimicker of pharyngeal perforation and esophageal atresia. Pediatr Radiol 35:1196–1198
Waltzman ML, Baskin M, Wypij D et al (2005) A randomized clinical trial of the management of esophageal coins in children. Pediatrics 116:614–619
Webb WA (1995) Management of foreign bodies of the upper gastrointestinal tract: update. Gastrointest Endosc 41:39–51
Westra SJ, Wolf BH, Staalman CR (1990) Ultrasound diagnosis of gastroesophageal reflux and hiatal hernia in infants and young children. J Clin Ultrasound 18:477–485
Yedururi S, Guillerman RP, Chung T et al (2008) Multimodality imaging of tracheobronchial disorders in children. Radiographics 28, e29. doi:10.1148/rg.e29
Yoshida T, Fukahara T, Inoue A et al (2005) Congenital esophageal duplication. Gastrointest Endosc 61:350–352
Yousefzadeh DK (2009) The position of the duodenojejunal junction: the wrong horse to bet on in diagnosing or excluding malrotation. Ped Radiol 39:S172–S177
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mann, G.S., Rizvi, A.A., Shabani, A.G., Rizvi, A., Stafrace, S. (2016). The Esophagus. In: Stafrace, S., Blickman, J. (eds) Radiological Imaging of the Digestive Tract in Infants and Children. Medical Radiology(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18434-0_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-18434-0_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-18433-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-18434-0
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)