Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Enteral Nutrition

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Textbook of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition

  • 3571 Accesses

Abstract

Enteral nutrition is a widely used technique for nutritional support which delivers a homogeneous, liquid nutrition admixture into the digestive tract by tube, into the stomach, duodenum, or the proximal jejunum. It is used to preserve nutritional status, support normal growth, and treat malnutrition when oral feeding is inadequate or not possible. The physiological bases underlying its implementation, as well as indications for programs of enteral nutrition in pediatric age, its composition according to the indication, and its complications are detailed in this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Chernoff R. An overview of tube feeding: from ancient times to the future. Nutr Clin Pract. 2006;21(4):408–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Harkness L. The history of enteral nutrition therapy: from raw eggs and nasal tubes to purified amino acids and early postoperative jejunal delivery. J Am Diet. 2002;102(3):399–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Gauderer MW, Ponsky JL, Izant RJ, Jr. Gastrostomy without laparotomy: a percutaneous endoscopic technique. J Pediatr Surg. 1980;15(6):872–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. ASPEN Board of Directors and the Clinical Guidelines Task Force. Guidelines for the use of parenteral and enteral nutrition in adult and pediatric patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26(Suppl 1):1SA–138SA.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Brotherton A, Abbott J, Hurley M, Aggett PJ. Home enteral tube feeding in children following percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy: perceptions of parents, paediatric dietitians and paediatric nurses. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2007;20(5):431–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Calderon C, Gomez-Lopez L, Martinez-Costa C, Borraz S, Moreno-Villares JM, Pedron-Giner C. Feeling of burden, psychological distress, and anxiety among primary caregivers of children with home enteral nutrition. J Pediatr Psychol. 2011;36(2):188–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Winkler MF. American society of parenteral and enteral nutrition presidential address: food for thought: it’s more than nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2007;31(4):334–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Quigley EM. Gastric and small intestinal motility in health and disease. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1996;25(1):113–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Ledeboer M, Masclee AA, Coenraad M, Vecht J, Biemond I, Lamers CB. Antroduodenal motility and small bowel transit during continuous intraduodenal or intragastric administration of enteral nutrition. Eur J Clin Inv. 1999;29(7):615–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. de Ville K, Knapp E, Al-Tawil Y, Berseth CL. Slow infusion feedings enhance duodenal motor responses and gastric emptying in preterm infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998;68(1):103–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Ledeboer M, Masclee AA, Biemond I, Lamers CB. Gallbladder motility and cholecystokinin secretion during continuous enteral nutrition. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997;92(12):2274–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Ledeboer M, Masclee AA, Biemond I, Lamers CB. Effect of intragastric or intraduodenal administration of a polymeric diet on gallbladder motility, small-bowel transit time, and hormone release. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93(11):2089–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Ledeboer M, Masclee AA, Biemond I, Lamers CB. Differences in cholecystokinin release and gallbladder contraction between emulsified and nonemulsified long-chain triglycerides. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1999;23(4):203–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Bell SJ, Bradley D, Forse RA, Bistrian BR. The new dietary fats in health and disease. J Am Diet. 1997;97(3):280–6, quiz 7–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Hunt JN, Knox MT. A relation between the chain length of fatty acids and the slowing of gastric emptying. J Physiol. 1968;194(2):327–36.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. O’Keefe SJ. Physiological response of the human pancreas to enteral and parenteral feeding. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2006;9(5):622–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Keller J, Runzi M, Goebell H, Layer P. Duodenal and ileal nutrient deliveries regulate human intestinal motor and pancreatic responses to a meal. Am J Physiol. 1997; 272(3 Pt 1):G632–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Wen J, Phillips SF, Sarr MG, Kost LJ, Holst JJ. PYY and GLP-1 contribute to feedback inhibition from the canine ileum and colon. Am J Physiol. 1995; 269(6 Pt 1):G945–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Nacht CA, Schutz Y, Vernet O, Christin L, Jequier E. Continuous versus single bolus enteral nutrition: comparison of energy metabolism in humans. Am J Physiol. 1986; 251(5 Pt 1):E524–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Premji S, Chessell L. Continuous nasogastric milk feeding versus intermittent bolus milk feeding for premature infants less than 1500 grams. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003(1):CD001819.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Silvestre MA, Morbach CA, Brans YW, Shankaran S. A prospective randomized trial comparing continuous versus intermittent feeding methods in very low birth weight neonates. J Pediatr. 1996;128(6):748–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Parker P, Stroop S, Greene H. A controlled comparison of continuous versus intermittent feeding in the treatment of infants with intestinal disease. J Pediatr. 1981;99(3):360–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Joly F, Dray X, Corcos O, Barbot L, Kapel N, Messing B. Tube feeding improves intestinal absorption in short bowel syndrome patients. Gastroenterology. 2009;136(3):824–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Colomb V, Bourdon-Lannoy E, Lambe C, Sauvat F, Hadj Rabia S, Teillac D, et al. Nutritional outcome in children with severe generalized recessive dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa: a short- and long-term evaluation of gastrostomy and enteral feeding. Br J Dermatol. 2012;166(2):354–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Haynes L, Atherton DJ, Ade-Ajayi N, Wheeler R, Kiely EM. Gastrostomy and growth in dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa. Br J Dermatol. 1996;134(5):872–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Mizuno K, Ueda A. The maturation and coordination of sucking, swallowing, and respiration in preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2003;142(1):36–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Watson J, McGuire W. Transpyloric versus gastric tube feeding for preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2:CD003487.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kim JH. Necrotizing enterocolitis: the road to zero. Semin Fetal Neonat Med. 2014;19(1):39–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Nicholls D, Hudson L, Mahomed F. Managing anorexia nervosa. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96(10):977–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Rocks T, Pelly F, Wilkinson P. Nutrition therapy during Initiation of refeeding in underweight children and adolescent in patients with anorexia nervosa: a systematic review of the evidence. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2014;114(6):897–907.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Hatch A, Madden S, Kohn MR, Clarke S, Touyz S, Gordon E, et al. In first presentation adolescent anorexia nervosa, do cognitive markers of underweight status change with weight gain following a refeeding intervention? Int J Eat Dis. 2010;43(4):295–306.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Thiels C. Forced treatment of patients with anorexia. Curr Op Psych. 2008;21(5):495–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Olofin I, McDonald CM, Ezzati M, Flaxman S, Black RE, Fawzi WW, et al. Associations of suboptimal growth with all-cause and cause-specific mortality in children under five years: a pooled analysis of ten prospective studies. PloS One. 2013;8(5):e64636.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Nehring I, Kewitz K, von Kries R, Thyen U. Long-term effects of enteral feeding on growth and mental health in adolescents with anorexia nervosa-results of a retrospective German cohort study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014;68(2):171–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Greene HL, Slonim AE, O’Neill JA, Jr, Burr IM. Continuous nocturnal intragastric feeding for management of type 1 glycogen-storage disease. N Engl J Med. 1976;294(8):423–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Rake JP, Visser G, Labrune P, Leonard JV, Ullrich K, Smit GP. Guidelines for management of glycogen storage disease type I—European study on glycogen storage disease type I (ESGSD I). Eur J Pediatr. 2002;161(Suppl 1):S112–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Chen YT, Bazzarre CH, Lee MM, Sidbury JB, Coleman RA. Type I glycogen storage disease: nine years of management with cornstarch. Eur J Pediatr. 1993;152(Suppl 1):S56–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Wolfsdorf JI, Keller RJ, Landy H, Crigler JF, Jr. Glucose therapy for glycogenosis type 1 in infants: comparison of intermittent uncooked cornstarch and continuous overnight glucose feedings. J Pediatr. 1990;117(3):384–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Heller S, Worona L, Consuelo A. Nutritional therapy for glycogen storage diseases. J Pediatri Gastr Nutr. 2008;47(Suppl 1):S15–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Goldberg T, Slonim AE. Nutrition therapy for hepatic glycogen storage diseases. J Am Diet. 1993;93(12):1423–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Haberle J, Boddaert N, Burlina A, Chakrapani A, Dixon M, Huemer M, et al. Suggested guidelines for the diagnosis and management of urea cycle disorders. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2012;7:32.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Singh RH. Nutritional management of patients with urea cycle disorders. J Inher Met Dis. 2007;30(6):880–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Acosta PB, Yannicelli S, Ryan AS, Arnold G, Marriage BJ, Plewinska M, et al. Nutritional therapy improves growth and protein status of children with a urea cycle enzyme defect. Mol Gen Metabol. 2005;86(4):448–55.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Leonard JV. The nutritional management of urea cycle disorders. J Pediatr. 2001;138(Suppl 1):S40–4, discussion S4–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Singh RH, Rhead WJ, Smith W, Lee B, Sniderman King L, Summar M. Nutritional management of urea cycle disorders. Crit Care Clin. 2005;21(Suppl 4):S27–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Chen Z, Wang S, Yu B, Li A. A comparison study between early enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition in severe burn patients. Burns. 2007;33(6):708–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Andel H, Kamolz LP, Horauf K, Zimpfer M. Nutrition and anabolic agents in burned patients. Burns. 2003;29(6):592–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Peng YZ, Yuan ZQ, Xiao GX. Effects of early enteral feeding on the prevention of enterogenic infection in severely burned patients. Burns. 2001;27(2):145–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Guieze R, Lemal R, Cabrespine A, Hermet E, Tournihac O, Combal C, Bay JO, Bouteloup C. Enteral versus parenteral nutrition support in allogeneic haematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Clin Nutr 2014;33(3):533–8

    Google Scholar 

  50. Seguy D, Berthon C, Micol JB, Darre S, Dalle JH, Neuville S, et al. Enteral feeding and early outcomes of patients undergoing allogeneic stem cell transplantation following myeloablative conditioning. Transplantation. 2006;82(6):835–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Hopman GD, Pena EG, Le Cessie S, Van Weel MH, Vossen JM, Mearin ML. Tube feeding and bone marrow transplantation. Med Pediatr Oncol. 2003;40(6):375–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Papadopoulou A, Williams MD, Darbyshire PJ, Booth IW. Nutritional support in children undergoing bone marrow transplantation. Clin Nutr. 1998;17(2):57–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Murray SM, Pindoria S. Nutrition support for bone marrow transplant patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(4):CD002920.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ledermann SE, Shaw V, Trompeter RS. Long-term enteral nutrition in infants and young children with chronic renal failure. Pediatr Nephrol. 1999;13(9):870–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Claris-Appiani A, Ardissino GL, Dacco V, Funari C, Terzi F. Catch-up growth in children with chronic renal failure treated with long-term enteral nutrition. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1995;19(3):175–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Reed EE, Roy LP, Gaskin KJ, Knight JF. Nutritional intervention and growth in children with chronic renal failure. J Renal Nutr. 1998;8(3):122–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Chadha V, Blowey DL, Warady BA. Is growth a valid outcome measure of dialysis clearance in children undergoing peritoneal dialysis? Perit Dial Int. 2001;21(Suppl 3):S179–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Kari JA, Gonzalez C, Ledermann SE, Shaw V, Rees L. Outcome and growth of infants with severe chronic renal failure. Kidney Int. 2000;57(4):1681–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Tom A, McCauley L, Bell L, Rodd C, Espinosa P, Yu G, et al. Growth during maintenance hemodialysis: impact of enhanced nutrition and clearance. J Pediatr. 1999;134(4):464–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Haffner D, Schaefer F, Nissel R, Wuhl E, Tonshoff B, Mehls O. Effect of growth hormone treatment on the adult height of children with chronic renal failure. German study group for growth hormone treatment in chronic renal failure. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(13):923–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Fine RN, Martz K, Stablein D. What have 20 years of data from the North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study taught us about growth following renal transplantation in infants, children, and adolescents with end-stage renal disease? Pediatr Nephrol. 2010;25(4):739–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Slicker J, Hehir DA, Horsley M, Monczka J, Stern KW, Roman B, et al. Nutrition algorithms for infants with hypoplastic left heart syndrome; birth through the first interstage period. Congenit Heart Dis. 2013;8(2):89–102.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Varan B, Tokel K, Yilmaz G. Malnutrition and growth failure in cyanotic and acyanotic congenital heart disease with and without pulmonary hypertension. Arch Dis Child. 1999;81(1):49–52.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hebson CL, Oster ME, Kirshbom PM, Clabby ML, Wulkan ML, Simsic JM. Association of feeding modality with interstage mortality after single-ventricle palliation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2012;144(1):173–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Irving SY, Medoff-Cooper B, Stouffer NO, Schall JI, Ravishankar C, Compher CW, et al. Resting energy expenditure at 3 months of age following neonatal surgery for congenital heart disease. Congenit Heart Dis. 2013;8(4):343–51.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Mehta NM, Costello JM, Bechard LJ, Johnson VM, Zurakowski D, McGowan FX, et al. Resting energy expenditure after Fontan surgery in children with single-ventricle heart defects. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2012;36(6):685–92.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Farrell AG, Schamberger MS, Olson IL, Leitch CA. Large left-to-right shunts and congestive heart failure increase total energy expenditure in infants with ventricular septal defect. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87(9):1128–31, A10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Skinner ML, Halstead LA, Rubinstein CS, Atz AM, Andrews D, Bradley SM. Laryngopharyngeal dysfunction after the Norwood procedure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005;130(5):1293–301.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Goldberg DJ, Dodds K, Rychik J. Rare problems associated with the Fontan circulation. Cardiol Young. 2010;20(Suppl 3):113–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Avery GB, Villavicencio O, Lilly JR, Randolph JG. Intractable diarrhea in early infancy. Pediatrics. 1968;41(4):712–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Goulet OJ, Brousse N, Canioni D, Walker-Smith JA, Schmitz J, Phillips AD. Syndrome of intractable diarrhoea with persistent villous atrophy in early childhood: a clinicopathological survey of 47 cases. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;26(2):151–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Guarino A, Spagnuolo MI, Russo S, Albano F, Guandalini S, Capano G, et al. Etiology and risk factors of severe and protracted diarrhea. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1995;20(2):173–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Guandalini S, Dincer AP. Nutritional management in diarrhoeal disease. Bailliere’s Clin Gastroenterol. 1998;12(4):697–717.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Weizman Z, Schmueli A, Deckelbaum RJ. Continuous nasogastric drip elemental feeding. Alternative for prolonged parenteral nutrition in severe prolonged diarrhea. Am J Dis Child. 1983;137(3):253–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Orenstein SR. Enteral versus parenteral therapy for intractable diarrhea of infancy: a prospective, randomized trial. J Pediatr. 1986;109(2):277–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Vanderhoof JA, Murray ND, Kaufman SS, Mack DR, Antonson DL, Corkins MR, et al. Intolerance to protein hydrolysate infant formulas: an underrecognized cause of gastrointestinal symptoms in infants. J Pediatr. 1997;131(5):741–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Goulet O, Olieman J, Ksiazyk J, Spolidoro J, Tibboe D, Kohler H, et al. Neonatal short bowel syndrome as a model of intestinal failure: physiological background for enteral feeding. Clin Nutr. 2013;32(2):162–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Goulet O, Joly F, Corriol O, Colomb-Jung V. Some new insights in intestinal failure-associated liver disease. Curr Opin Organ Transplant. 2009;14(3):256–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Rudolph CD, Hyman PE, Altschuler SM, Christensen J, Colletti RB, Cucchiara S, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction in children: report of consensus workshop. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1997;24(1):102–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Goulet O, Jobert-Giraud A, Michel JL, Jaubert F, Lortat-Jacob S, Colomb V, et al. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction syndrome in pediatric patients. Eur J Pediatr Surg (Z Kinderchir). 1999;9(2):83–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Faure C, Goulet O, Ategbo S, Breton A, Tounian P, Ginies JL, et al. Chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction syndrome: clinical analysis, outcome, and prognosis in 105 children. French-Speaking Group of Pediatric Gastroenterology. Dig Dis Sci. 1999;44(5):953–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Heneyke S, Smith VV, Spitz L, Milla PJ. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction: treatment and long term follow up of 44 patients. Arch Dis Child. 1999;81(1):21–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Kelly DA. Preventing parenteral nutrition liver disease. Early Hum Dev. 2010;86(11):683–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Alverdy JC, Aoys E, Moss GS. Total parenteral nutrition promotes bacterial translocation from the gut. Surgery. 1988;104(2):185–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Morin CL, Roulet M, Roy CC, Weber A, Lapointe N. Continuous elemental enteral alimentation in the treatment of children and adolescents with Crohn’s disease. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1982;6(3):194–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. O’Morain C, Segal AW, Levi AJ. Elemental diet as primary treatment of acute Crohn’s disease: a controlled trial. BMJ. 1984;288(6434):1859–62.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Seidman EG, Roy CC, Weber AM, Morin CL. Nutritional therapy of Crohn’s disease in childhood. Dig Dis Sci. 1987;32(Suppl 12):82S–8S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Sanderson IR, Udeen S, Davies PS, Savage MO, Walker-Smith JA. Remission induced by an elemental diet in small bowel Crohn’s disease. Arch Dis Child. 1987;62(2):123–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Rigaud D, Cosnes J, Le Quintrec Y, Rene E, Gendre JP, Mignon M. Controlled trial comparing two types of enteral nutrition in treatment of active Crohn’s disease: elemental versus polymeric diet. Gut. 1991;32(12):1492–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Belli DC, Seidman E, Bouthillier L, Weber AM, Roy CC, Pletincx M, et al. Chronic intermittent elemental diet improves growth failure in children with Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology. 1988;94(3):603–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Thomas AG, Taylor F, Miller V. Dietary intake and nutritional treatment in childhood Crohn’s disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1993;17(1):75–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Ruuska T, Savilahti E, Maki M, Ormala T, Visakorpi JK. Exclusive whole protein enteral diet versus prednisolone in the treatment of acute Crohn’s disease in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1994;19(2):175–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Beattie RM, Schiffrin EJ, Donnet-Hughes A, Huggett AC, Domizio P, MacDonald TT, et al. Polymeric nutrition as the primary therapy in children with small bowel Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1994;8(6):609–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Breese EJ, Michie CA, Nicholls SW, Williams CB, Domizio P, Walker-Smith JA, et al. The effect of treatment on lymphokine-secreting cells in the intestinal mucosa of children with Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1995;9(5):547–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Rubio A, Pigneur B, Garnier-Lengline H, Talbotec C, Schmitz J, Canioni D, et al. The efficacy of exclusive nutritional therapy in paediatric Crohn’s disease, comparing fractionated oral vs. continuous enteral feeding. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2011;33(12):1332–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Heuschkel RB, Menache CC, Megerian JT, Baird AE. Enteral nutrition and corticosteroids in the treatment of acute Crohn’s disease in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;31(1):8–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Griffiths AM, Ohlsson A, Sherman PM, Sutherland LR. Meta-analysis of enteral nutrition as a primary treatment of active Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology. 1995;108(4):1056–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Zachos M, Tondeur M, Griffiths AM. Enteral nutritional therapy for inducing remission of Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(3):CD000542.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Zachos M, Tondeur M, Griffiths AM. Enteral nutritional therapy for induction of remission in Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1):CD000542.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Dziechciarz P, Horvath A, Shamir R, Szajewska H. Meta-analysis: enteral nutrition in active Crohn’s disease in children. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2007;26(6):795–806.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Critch J, Day AS, Otley A, King-Moore C, Teitelbaum JE, Shashidhar H. Use of enteral nutrition for the control of intestinal inflammation in pediatric Crohn disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2012;54(2):298–305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Murch SH, Walker-Smith JA. Nutrition in inflammatory bowel disease. Bailliere’s Clin Gastroenterol. 1998;12(4):719–38.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Akobeng AK, Miller V, Stanton J, Elbadri AM, Thomas AG. Double-blind randomized controlled trial of glutamine-enriched polymeric diet in the treatment of active Crohn’s disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2000;30(1):78–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Ruemmele FM, Roy CC, Levy E, Seidman EG. Nutrition as primary therapy in pediatric Crohn’s disease: fact or fantasy? J Pediatr. 2000;136(3):285–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Colomb V, Goulet O, Gorski AM, Moukarzel A, Jan D, Nihoul-Fekete C, et al. Severe digestive manifestation of rheumatoid purpura. Retrospective study of 19 cases in children. Arch Fr Pediatr. 1990;47(1):9–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Stallings VA, Stark LJ, Robinson KA, Feranchak AP, Quinton H. Evidence-based practice recommendations for nutrition-related management of children and adults with cystic fibrosis and pancreatic insufficiency: results of a systematic review. J Am Diet. 2008;108(5):832–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  107. Borowitz D, Baker RD, Stallings V. Consensus report on nutrition for pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;35(3):246–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Erskine JM, Lingard C, Sontag M. Update on enteral nutrition support for cystic fibrosis. Nutr Clin Prac. 2007;22(2):223–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Michel SH, Maqbool A, Hanna MD, Mascarenhas M. Nutrition management of pediatric patients who have cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2009;56(5):1123–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Patient Registry. Annual Data Report [Internet]; 2011. http://www.cff.org/UploadedFiles/research/ClinicalResearch/2011-Patient-Registry.pdf. Accessed 4 May 2014.

  111. Borowitz D, Grand, RJ., Durie PR. Use of pancreatic enzyme supplements for patients with cystic fibrosis in the context of fibrosing colonopathy. J Pediatr. 1995;127(5):681–4 (March 23–24, 1995. Report No.: Contract No.: Section I).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Gunnell S, Christensen NK, McDonald C, Jackson D. Attitudes toward percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement in cystic fibrosis patients. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40(3):334–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Yen EH, Quinton H, Borowitz D. Better nutritional status in early childhood is associated with improved clinical outcomes and survival in patients with cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr. 2013;162(3):530–5, e1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Oliver MR, Heine RG, Ng CH, Volders E, Olinsky A. Factors affecting clinical outcome in gastrostomy-fed children with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Pulmon. 2004;37(4):324–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  115. Goulet OJ, de Ville de Goyet J, Otte JB, Ricour C. Preoperative nutritional evaluation and support for liver transplantation in children. Transplant Proc. 1987;19(4):3249–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Protheroe SM, Kelly DA. Cholestasis and end-stage liver disease. Bailliere’s Clin Gastroenterol. 1998;12(4):823–41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Pierro A, Koletzko B, Carnielli V, Superina RA, Roberts EA, Filler RM, et al. Resting energy expenditure is increased in infants and children with extrahepatic biliary atresia. J Pediatr Surg. 1989;24(6):534–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. McCullough AJ. Malnutrition in liver disease. Liver Transplant. 2000;6(4 Suppl 1):S85–96.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Baker A, Stevenson R, Dhawan A, Goncalves I, Socha P, Sokal E. Guidelines for nutritional care for infants with cholestatic liver disease before liver transplantation. Pediatr Transplant. 2007;11(8):825–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Sokal EM, Goldstein D, Ciocca M, Lewindon P, Ni YH, Silveira T, et al. End-stage liver disease and liver transplant: current situation and key issues. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2008;47(2):239–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. SPLIT Research Group. Studies of pediatric liver transplantation (SPLIT): year 2000 outcomes. Transplantation. 2001;72(3):463–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Barshes NR, Chang IF, Karpen SJ, Carter BA, Goss JA. Impact of pretransplant growth retardation in pediatric liver transplantation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;43(1):89–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Chin SE, Shepherd RW, Thomas BJ, Cleghorn GJ, Patrick MK, Wilcox JA, et al. Nutritional support in children with end-stage liver disease: a randomized crossover trial of a branched-chain amino acid supplement. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;56(1):158–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Holt RI, Miell JP, Jones JS, Mieli-Vergani G, Baker AJ. Nasogastric feeding enhances nutritional status in paediatric liver disease but does not alter circulating levels of IGF-I and IGF binding proteins. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2000;52(2):217–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Chin SE, Shepherd RW, Cleghorn GJ, Patrick MK, Javorsky G, Frangoulis E, et al. Survival, growth and quality of life in children after orthotopic liver transplantation: a 5 year experience. J Pediatr Child Health. 1991;27(6):380–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Shepherd RW, Chin SE, Cleghorn GJ, Patrick M, Ong TH, Lynch SV, et al. Malnutrition in children with chronic liver disease accepted for liver transplantation: clinical profile and effect on outcome. J Pediatr Child Health. 1991;27(5):295–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Sullivan JS, Sundaram SS, Pan Z, Sokol RJ. Parenteral nutrition supplementation in biliary atresia patients listed for liver transplantation. Liver Transplant. 2012;18(1):120–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Charlton CP, Buchanan E, Holden CE, Preece MA, Green A, Booth IW, et al. Intensive enteral feeding in advanced cirrhosis: reversal of malnutrition without precipitation of hepatic encephalopathy. Arch Dis Child. 1992;67(5):603–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Cabre E, Gonzalez-Huix F, Abad-Lacruz A, Esteve M, Acero D, Fernandez-Banares F, et al. Effect of total enteral nutrition on the short-term outcome of severely malnourished cirrhotics. A randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology. 1990;98(3):715–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Kaufman SS, Scrivner DJ, Murray ND, Vanderhoof JA, Hart MH, Antonson DL. Influence of portagen and pregestimil on essential fatty acid status in infantile liver disease. Pediatrics. 1992;89(1):151–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Black RE, Cousens S, Johnson HL, Lawn JE, Rudan I, Bassani DG, et al. Global, regional, and national causes of child mortality in 2008: a systematic analysis. Lancet. 2010;375(9730):1969–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Nightingale S, Ng VL. Optimizing nutritional management in children with chronic liver disease. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2009;56(5):1161–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Annonymous. In: Board FaN, editor. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press; 2005. 1331 p.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Duffy B, Gunn T, Collinge J, Pencharz P. The effect of varying protein quality and energy intake on the nitrogen metabolism of parenterally fed very low birthweight (less than 1600 g) infants. Pediatr Res. 1981;15(7):1040–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Mager DR, Wykes LJ, Roberts EA, Ball RO, Pencharz PB. Branched-chain amino acid needs in children with mild-to-moderate chronic cholestatic liver disease. J Nutr. 2006;136(1):133–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Als-Nielsen B, Koretz RL, Kjaergard LL, Gluud C. Branched-chain amino acids for hepatic encephalopathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003(2):CD001939.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Owens JL, Musa N. Nutrition support after neonatal cardiac surgery. Nutr Clin Pract. 2009;24(2):242–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Kirby DF, Delegge MH, Fleming CR. American Gastroenterological Association technical review on tube feeding for enteral nutrition. Gastroenterology. 1995;108(4):1282–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Itkin M, DeLegge MH, Fang JC, McClave SA, Kundu S, d’Othee BJ, et al. Multidisciplinary practical guidelines for gastrointestinal access for enteral nutrition and decompression from the Society of Interventional Radiology and American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) Institute, with endorsement by Canadian Interventional Radiological Association (CIRA) and Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe (CIRSE). Gastroenterology. 2011;141(2):742–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. DiBaise JK, Decker GA. Enteral access options and management in the patient with intestinal failure. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2007;41(7):647–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Silk DB, Rees RG, Keohane PP, Attrill H. Clinical efficacy and design changes of “fine bore” nasogastric feeding tubes: a seven-year experience involving 809 intubations in 403 patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1987;11(4):378–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Beckstrand J, Cirgin Ellett ML, McDaniel A. Predicting internal distance to the stomach for positioning nasogastric and orogastric feeding tubes in children. J Adv Nurs. 2007;59(3):274–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Ellett ML. What is known about methods of correctly placing gastric tubes in adults and children. Gastroenterol Nurs. 2004;27(6):253–9, quiz 60–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Gauderer MW. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and the evolution of contemporary long-term enteral access. Clin Nutr (Edinb, Scotl). 2002;21(2):103–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Doede T, Faiss S, Schier F. Jejunal feeding tubes via gastrostomy in children. Endoscopy. 2002;34(7):539–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Grimble GK, Rees RG, Keohane PP, Cartwright T, Desreumaux M, Silk DB. Effect of peptide chain length on absorption of egg protein hydrolysates in the normal human jejunum. Gastroenterology. 1987;92(1):136–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Grimble GK. The significance of peptides in clinical nutrition. An Rev Nutr. 1994;14:419–47.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Fairclough PD, Hegarty JE, Silk DB, Clark ML. Comparison of the absorption of two protein hydrolysates and their effects on water and electrolyte movements in the human jejunum. Gut. 1980;21(10):829–34.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Moriarty KJ, Hegarty JE, Fairclough PD, Kelly MJ, Clark ML, Dawson AM. Relative nutritional value of whole protein, hydrolysed protein and free amino acids in man. Gut. 1985;26(7):694–9.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Bach AC, Babayan VK. Medium-chain triglycerides: an update. Am J Clin Nutr. 1982;36(5):950–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Lima LA, Gray OP, Losty H. Excretion of dicarboxylic acids following administration of medium chain triglycerides. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1987;11(6):600–1.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Holliday MA, Segar WE. The maintenance need for water in parenteral fluid therapy. Pediatrics. 1957;19(5):823–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Aggett PJ, Agostoni C, Axelsson I, De Curtis M, Goulet O, Hernell O, et al. Feeding preterm infants after hospital discharge: a commentary by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;42(5):596–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Bines J, Francis D, Hill D. Reducing parenteral requirement in children with short bowel syndrome: impact of an amino acid-based complete infant formula. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;26(2):123–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Andorsky DJ, Lund DP, Lillehei CW, Jaksic T, Dicanzio J, Richardson DS, et al. Nutritional and other postoperative management of neonates with short bowel syndrome correlates with clinical outcomes. J Pediatr. 2001;139(1):27–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Bernbaum JC, Pereira GR, Watkins JB, Peckham GJ. Nonnutritive sucking during gavage feeding enhances growth and maturation in premature infants. Pediatrics. 1983;71(1):41–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Pinelli J, Symington A. Non-nutritive sucking for promoting physiologic stability and nutrition in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005;(4):CD001071.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Simon T, Fink AS. Current management of endoscopic feeding tube dysfunction. Surg Endosc. 1999;13(4):403–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Marcuard SP, Stegall KL, Trogdon S. Clearing obstructed feeding tubes. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1989;13(1):81–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Marcuard SP, Stegall KS. Unclogging feeding tubes with pancreatic enzyme. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990;14(2):198–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. McClave SA, DeMeo MT, DeLegge MH, DiSario JA, Heyland DK, Maloney JP, et al. North American summit on aspiration in the critically Ill patient: consensus statement. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26(Suppl 6):S80–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Parker CM, Heyland DK. Aspiration and the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Nutr Clin Prac. 2004;19(6):597–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  163. Goulet O, Colomb-Jung V, Joly F. Role of the colon in short bowel syndrome and intestinal transplantation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;48(Suppl 2):S66–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Ehrlein H, Haas-Deppe B, Weber E. The sodium concentration of enteral diets does not influence absorption of nutrients but induces intestinal secretion of water in miniature pigs. J Nutr. 1999;129(2):410–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Flores JC, Lopez-Herce J, Sola I, Carrillo A, Jr. Duodenal perforation caused by a transpyloric tube in a critically ill infant. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angel Cy, Calif). 2006;22(2):209–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Perez-Rodriques J, Quero J, Frias EG, Omenaca F, Martinez A. Duodenorenal perforation in a neonate by a tube of silicone rubber during transpyloric feeding. J Pediatr. 1978;92(1):113–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Boros SJ, Reynolds JW. Duodenal perforation: a complication of neonatal nasojejunal feeding. J Pediatri. 1974;85(1):107–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Lopez-Herce J, Santiago MJ, Sanchez C, Mencia S, Carrillo A, Vigil D. Risk factors for gastrointestinal complications in critically ill children with transpyloric enteral nutrition. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2008;62(3):395–400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Heine RG, Reddihough DS, Catto-Smith AG. Gastro-oesophageal reflux and feeding problems after gastrostomy in children with severe neurological impairment. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37(4):320–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Grunow JE, al-Hafidh A, Tunell WP. Gastroesophageal reflux following percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in children. J Pediatr Surg. 1989;24(1):42–4, discussion 4–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Noble LJ, Dalzell AM, El-Matary W. The relationship between percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children: a systematic review. Surg Endosc. 2012;26(9):2504–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Veit F, Heine RG, Catto-Smith AG. Dumping syndrome after Nissen fundoplication. J Pediatr Child Health. 1994;30(2):182–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Bufler P, Ehringhaus C, Koletzko S. Dumping syndrome: a common problem following Nissen fundoplication in young children. Pediatr Surg Int. 2001;17(5–6):351–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Samuk I, Afriat R, Horne T, Bistritzer T, Barr J, Vinograd I. Dumping syndrome following Nissen fundoplication, diagnosis, and treatment. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1996;23(3):235–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Calabria AC, Gallagher PR, Simmons R, Blinman T, De Leon DD. Postoperative surveillance and detection of postprandial hypoglycemia after fundoplasty in children. J Pediatr. 2011;159(4):597–601, e1.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Khoshoo V, Reifen RM, Gold BD, Sherman PM, Pencharz PB. Nutritional manipulation in the management of dumping syndrome. Arch Dis Child. 1991;66(12):1447–8.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Khoshoo V, Roberts PL, Loe WA, Golladay ES, Pencharz PB. Nutritional management of dumping syndrome associated with antireflux surgery. J Pediatr Surg. 1994;29(11):1452–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Borovoy J, Furuta L, Nurko S. Benefit of uncooked cornstarch in the management of children with dumping syndrome fed exclusively by gastrostomy. Am J Gastroentrol. 1998;93(5):814–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Gitzelmann R, Hirsig J. Infant dumping syndrome: reversal of symptoms by feeding uncooked starch. Eur J Pediatr. 1986;145(6):504–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. De Cunto A, Barbi E, Minen F, Ventura A. Safety and efficacy of high-dose acarbose treatment for dumping syndrome. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2011;53(1):113–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Cronobacter species isolation in two infants—New Mexico, 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009;58(42):1179–83.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Jason J. Prevention of invasive Cronobacter infections in young infants fed powdered infant formulas. Pediatrics. 2012;130(5):e1076–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Christine J, Taylor PD. Health professsionals letter on Enterobacter sakazakii infections associated with use of powdered (dry) infant formulas in neonatal intensive care unite. Safety Alerts & Advisories: U.S. Food and Drug Administration; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  184. Anderson KR, Norris DJ, Godfrey LB, Avent CK, Butterworth CE, Jr. Bacterial contamination of tube-feeding formulas. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1984;8(6):673–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Levy J, Van Laethem Y, Verhaegen G, Perpete C, Butzler JP, Wenzel RP. Contaminated enteral nutrition solutions as a cause of nosocomial bloodstream infection: a study using plasmid fingerprinting. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1989;13(3):228–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Patchell CJ, Anderton A, Holden C, MacDonald A, George RH, Booth IW. Reducing bacterial contamination of enteral feeds. Arch Dis Child. 1998;78(2):166–8.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Mathus-Vliegen EM, Bredius MW, Binnekade JM. Analysis of sites of bacterial contamination in an enteral feeding system. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2006;30(6):519–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Matlow A, Jacobson M, Wray R, Goldman C, Streitenberger L, Freeman R, et al. Enteral tube hub as a reservoir for transmissible enteric bacteria. Am J Infect Control. 2006;34(3):131–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Matlow A, Wray R, Goldman C, Streitenberger L, Freeman R, Kovach D. Microbial contamination of enteral feed administration sets in a pediatric institution. Am J Infect Control. 2003;31(1):49–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Mehall JR, Kite CA, Saltzman DA, Wallett T, Jackson RJ, Smith SD. Prospective study of the incidence and complications of bacterial contamination of enteral feeding in neonates. J Pediatr Surg. 2002;37(8):1177–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Palesty JA, Dudrick SJ. The goldilocks paradigm of starvation and refeeding. Nutr Clin Pract. 2006;21(2):147–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Fuentebella J, Kerner JA. Refeeding syndrome. Pediatr Clin N Am. 2009;56(5):1201–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Gaudiani JL, Sabel AL, Mehler PS. Low prealbumin is a significant predictor of medical complications in severe anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 2014;47(2):148–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Dunn RL, Stettler N, Mascarenhas MR. Refeeding syndrome in hospitalized pediatric patients. Nutr Clin Pract. 2003;18(4):327–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Greene HL, Helinek GL, Folk CC, Courtney M, Thompson S, MacDonell RC, Jr, et al. Nasogastric tube feeding at home: a method for adjunctive nutritional support of malnourished patients. Am J Clin Nutr. 1981;34(6):1131–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Daveluy W, Guimber D, Mention K, Lescut D, Michaud L, Turck D, et al. Home enteral nutrition in children: an 11-year experience with 416 patients. Clin Nutr. 2005;24(1):48–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Pedron-Giner C, Navas-Lopez VM, Martinez-Zazo AB, Martinez-Costa C, Sanchez-Valverde F, Blasco-Alonso J, et al. Analysis of the Spanish national registry for pediatric home enteral nutrition (NEPAD): implementation rates and observed trends during the past 8 years. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013;67(4):318–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Colomb V, Goulet O, Ricour C. Home enteral and parenteral nutrition in children. Bailliere’s Clin Gastroenterol. 1998;12(4):877–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Howard L, Ament M, Fleming CR, Shike M, Steiger E. Current use and clinical outcome of home parenteral and enteral nutrition therapies in the United States. Gastroenterology. 1995;109(2):355–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Elia M. An international perspective on artificial nutritional support in the community. Lancet. 1995;345(8961):1345–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Ireton-Jones C. Home enteral nutrition from the provider’s perspective. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2002;26(Suppl 5):S8–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Elia M. Home enteral nutrition: general aspects and a comparison between the United States and Britain. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angel Cty, Calif). 1994;10(2):115–23.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Holden CE, MacDonald A, Ward M, Ford K, Patchell C, Handy D, et al. Psychological preparation for nasogastric feeding in children. Br J Nurs (Mark Allen Publ). 1997;6(7):376–81, 84–5.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Holden CE, Puntis JW, Charlton CP, Booth IW. Nasogastric feeding at home: acceptability and safety. Arch Dis Child. 1991;66(1):148–51.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Liptak GS. Home care for children who have chronic conditions. Pediatr Rev/Am Acad Pediatr. 1997;18(8):271–3.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, Section of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, Comer Children’s Hospital, University of Chicago, 5841 S. Maryland Avenue, 60637, Chicago, IL, USA

    Timothy A. Sentongo

  2. Department of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, 149 rue de Sèvres, 75743, Paris Cedex 15, France

    Olivier Goulet & Virginie Colomb

Authors
  1. Timothy A. Sentongo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Olivier Goulet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Virginie Colomb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Timothy A. Sentongo .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA

    Stefano Guandalini

  2. Clinical Director Child Health King’s College Hospital, Professor and Director Pediatric Liver, GI and Nutrition Center, London, United Kingdom

    Anil Dhawan

  3. Department of Pediatrics, Hebrew University Hadassah Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel

    David Branski

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Sentongo, T., Goulet, O., Colomb, V. (2016). Enteral Nutrition. In: Guandalini, S., Dhawan, A., Branski, D. (eds) Textbook of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17169-2_46

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17169-2_46

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-17168-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-17169-2

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation