Skip to main content
Book cover

Biomass and Biofuels from Microalgae pp 95–115Cite as

Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment for Biofuel Production: Processes, Species, and Extraction Methods

Part of the Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies book series (BBT,volume 2)

Abstract

This chapter develops the principles and rationale for an algae-based biofuel production coupled to bioremediation of municipal and agricultural wastewaters . A synergistic model for algal wastewater treatment is proposed, which addresses several economic bottlenecks to earlier algal systems and promotes value-added products, including a high-quality effluent in addition to biodiesel to improve the economic feasibility of algal biofuels . Finally, we review candidate species for full-scale algae production ponds based on algal structure, physiology and ecology , and methods for extraction of algal oils for biodiesel production and coproducts. The dominant strains of algae that are commonly found in wastewater ponds, including  Euglenia , Scenedesmus , Selenastrum , Chlorella, and  Actinastrum , are suggested as candidates for large-scale culturing based on their ability to strip nutrients and organic matter from wastewater , grow rapidly, and produce a significant level of algal oil. Oil extraction by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is discussed as an efficient means of isolating algal oil and other commercially important high-value compounds from algal biomass . Together with water and CO2 reclamation, such products may shift the economics of algal biomass production to allow production of low-value commodities including biodiesel and biogas.

Keywords

  • Biochemical Oxygen Demand
  • Supercritical Fluid Extraction
  • Phaeodactylum Tricornutum
  • Tertiary Treatment
  • Euglena Gracilis

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-16640-7_6
  • Chapter length: 21 pages
  • Instant PDF download
  • Readable on all devices
  • Own it forever
  • Exclusive offer for individuals only
  • Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • ISBN: 978-3-319-16640-7
  • Instant PDF download
  • Readable on all devices
  • Own it forever
  • Exclusive offer for individuals only
  • Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
Learn about institutional subscriptions
Fig. 6.1

References

  • Adams C, Godfrey V, Wahlen B, Seefeldt L, Bugbee B (2013) Understanding precision nitrogen stress to optimize the growth and lipid content tradeoff in oleaginous green microalgae. Bioresour Technol 131:188–194

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson RA (2004) Biology and systematics of heterokont and haptophyte algae. Am J Bot 91:1508–1522

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Becker EW (1994) Microalgae: biotechnology and microbiology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Benemann JR, Hallenbeck PC, Weissman JC, Murry M, Oswald WJ (1977) Fertilizer production with nitrogen-fixing heterocystous blue-green algae. Final Report to the National Science Foundation, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, University California Berkeley

    Google Scholar 

  • Benemann JR, Oswald WJ (1996) Systems and economic analysis of microalgae ponds for conversion of CO2 to biomass, final report, Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center

    Google Scholar 

  • Bligh EG, Dyer WJ (1959) A rapid method for total lipid extraction and purification. Can J Biochem Physiol 37(8):911–917

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA (1997) Microalgae for aquaculture: opportunities and constraints. J Appl Phycol 9(5):393–401

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Borowitzka MA, Moheimani NR (2013) Sustainable biofuels from algae. Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Change 18:13–25

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Brussaard CP (2004) Viral control of phytoplankton populations—a review. J Eukaryot Microbiol 51(2):125–138

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalier-Smith T (2007) A revised six-kingdom system of life. Biol Rev 73(3):203–266

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Chisti Y (2007) Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 25(3):294–306

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Choi KJ, Nakhost Z, Krukonis VJ, Karel M (1987) Supercritical fluid extraction and characterization of lipids from algae Scenedesmus obliquus. Food Biotechnol 1(2):263–281

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Colla LM, Bertolina TE, Costa JAV (2004) Fatty acids profile of Spirulina platensis grown under different temperatures and nitrogen concentrations. Zeitschrift Fur Naturforschung C 59(1/2):55–59

    Google Scholar 

  • Couto RM, Simões PC, Reis A, da Silva TL, Martins VH, Sanchez-Vincente Y (2010) Supercritical fluid extraction of lipids from the heterotrophic microalga Crypthecodinium cohnii. Eng Life Sci 10(2):158–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Craggs RJ, Lundquist TJ, Benemann JR (2012) Wastewater treatment pond algal production for biofuel. In: Gordon R, Seckbach J (eds) The science of algal fuels: phycology, geology, biophotonics, genomics and nanotechnology. Springer, Dordrecht

    Google Scholar 

  • Das P, Lei W, Aziz SS, Obbard JP (2011) Enhanced algae growth in both phototrophic and mixotrophic culture under blue light. Bioresour Technol 102(4):3883–3887

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Davis R, Aden A (2011) Techno-economic analysis of autotrophic microalgae for fuel production. Appl Energy 88:3524–3531

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Davis SC, Kucharik CJ, Fazio S, Monti A (2013) Environmental sustainability of advanced biofuels. Biofuels Bioprod Biorefin 7:638–646

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • De Pauw N, Van Vaerenbergh E (1981) Microalgae wastewater treatment systems: potentials and limits. In: Conference phytodepuration and employment of the biomass produced, Parma, Italy, 15–16 May 1981

    Google Scholar 

  • De Wever A, Leliaert F, Verleyen E, Vanormelingen P, Van der Gucht K, Hodgson DA, Sabbe K, Vyverman W (2009) Hidden levels of phylodiversity in Antarctic green algae: further evidence for the existence of glacial refugia. Proc Roy Soci B Biol Sci 276:3591–3599

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Downing JB, Bracco E, Green FB, Ku AY, Lundquist TJ, Zubieta IX, Oswald WJ (2002) Low cost wastewater reclamation using the advanced integrated wastewater pond system technology and reverse osmosis. Water Sci Technol 45(1):117–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Fawley KP, Fawley MW (2007) Observations on the diversity and ecology of freshwater Nannochloropsis (Eustigmatophyceae), with descriptions of new Taxa. Protist 158:325–336

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Frank ED, Elgowainy A, Han J, Wang Z (2013) Life cycle comparison of hydrothermal liquefaction and lipid extraction pathways to renewable diesel from algae. Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Change 18(1):137–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Fulton LM (2009) Nutrient removal by algae grown in CO2-enriched wastewater over a range of nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratios. Master’s thesis, civil and environmental engineering department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, p 63

    Google Scholar 

  • Garnier M, Carrier G, Rogniaux H, Nicolau E, Bougaran G, Saint-Jean B, Cadoret JP (2014) Comparative proteomics reveals proteins impacted by nitrogen deprivation in wild-type and high lipid-accumulating mutant strains of Tisochrysis lutea. J Proteomics 105:107–120 S1874-3919(14)00071-2

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Gerken HG, Donohoe B, Knoshaug EP (2013) Enzymatic cell wall degradation of Chlorella vulgaris and other microalgae for biofuels production. Planta 237(1):239–253

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Gladden JM, Allgaier M, Miller CS, Hazen TC, VanderGheynst JS, Hugenholtz P, Simmons BA, Singer SW (2011) Glycoside hydrolase activities of thermophilic bacterial consortia adapted to switchgrass. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:5804–5812

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths MJ, Harrison STL (2009) Lipid productivity as a key characteristic for choosing algal species for biodiesel production. J Appl Phycol 21(5):493–507

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Grobbelaar JU (2004) Algal nutrition. In: Richmond A (ed) Handbook of microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycology. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, pp 97–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Guckert JB, Cooksey KE, Jackson LL (1988) Lipid solvent systems are not equivalent for analysis of lipid classes in the microeukaryotic green algae, Chlorella. J Microbiol Methods 8:139–149

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Guiry MD (2012) How many species of algae are there? J Phycol 48:1057–1061

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Halim R, Gladman B, Danquah MK, Webley PA (2011) Oil extraction from microalgae for biodiesel production. Bioresour Technol 102:178–185

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Herrero M, Mendiola JA, Cifuentes A, Ibáñez E (2010) Supercritical fluid extraction: recent advances and applications. J Chromatogr A 1217:2495–2511

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Hillebrand H (2011) Temperature mediates competitive exclusion and diversity in benthic microalgae under different N: P stoichiometry. Ecol Res 26(3):533–539

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Horner RA (2002) A taxonomic guide to some common marine phytoplankton. Biopress, Bristol, pp 25–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Huerlimann R, de Nys Heimann (2010) Growth, lipid content, productivity, and fatty acid composition of tropical microalgae for scale-up production. Biotechnol Bioeng 107(2):245–257

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Illman AM, Scragg AH, Shales SW (2000) Increase in Chlorella strains calorific values when grown in low nitrogen medium. Enzyme Microb Technol 27:631–635

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Jakobsen AN, Aasen IM, Josefsen KD, Strom AR (2008) Accumulation of docosahexaenoic acid-rich lipid in thraustochytrid Aurantiochytrium sp strain T66: effects of N and P starvation and O2 limitation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 80(2):297–306

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Kent AD, Triplett EW (2002) Microbial communities and their interactions in soil and rhizosphere ecosystems. Annu Rev Microbiol 56:211–236

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Lang W (1974) Competitive exclusion among three planktonic blue-green algal species. J Phycol 10(4):411–414

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis L, Lewis P (2005) Unearthing the molecular phylodiversity of desert soil green algae (Chlorophyta). Syst Biol 54(6):936–947

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Li Y, Horsman M, Wang B, Wu N, Lan CQ (2008) Effects of nitrogen sources on cell growth and lipid accumulation of green alga Neochloris oleoabundans. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 81(4):629–636

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Lucentinii J (2005) Secondary endosymbiosis exposed. Scientist 19:22–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundquist TJ, Woertz IC, Benemann JR (2011) Algal high rate ponds with CO2 addition for energy efficient nutrient recovery. In: Paper written for the Nutrient Recovery and Management conference, Water Environment Federation, Miami, Florida, p 14

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundquist TJ, Woertz IC, Quinn NWT, Benemann JR (2010) A realistic technological and economic assessment of algae biofuels. Report prepared for the BP Energy Biosciences Institute. Berkeley, California, p 154

    Google Scholar 

  • Lv JM, Cheng LH, Xu XH, Zhang L, Chen HL (2010) Enhanced lipid production of Chlorella vulgaris by adjustment of cultivation conditions. Bioresour Technol 101(17):6797–6804

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Mahapatra DM, Ramachandra TV (2013) Algal biofuel: bountiful lipid from Chlorococcum sp. proliferating in municipal wastewater. Curr Sci 105(1):47–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez ME, Sanchez S, Jimenez JM, El Yousfi F, Munoz L (2000) Nitrogen and phosphorus removal from urban wastewater by the microalga Scenedesmus obliquus. Bioresour Technol 73:263–272

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • McCormick PV, Cairns J (1994) Algae as indicators of environmental change. J Appl Phycol 6:509–526

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • McGinnis KM, Dempster TA, Sommerfeld MR (1997) Characterization of the growth and lipid content of the diatom Chaetoceros muelleri. J Appl Phycol 9:19–24

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Miaoa X, Wu Q (2006) Biodiesel production from heterotrophic microalgal oil. Bioresour Technol 97:841–846

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Moestrup O (2001a) Algae: phylogeny and evolution. In: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Moestrup O (2001b) Algal taxonomy: historical overview. In: eLS. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  • Molina Grima EH, Belarbia FG, Acien FA, Robles M, Chisti Y (2003) Recovery of microalgal biomass and metabolites: process options and economics. Biotechnol Adv 20:491–515

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Murry MA, Benemann JR (1980) Fresh and brackish water aquatic plant resources. In: Zaborsky O (ed) Handbook of Biosolar resources, vol II. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 407–470

    Google Scholar 

  • Neori A (2008) Essential role of seaweed cultivation in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture farms for global expansion of mariculture: an analysis. J Appl Phycol 20:567–570

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Oilgae (2009) Oilgae guide to algae-based wastewater treatment. A Sample Report

    Google Scholar 

  • Ojala A, Tikka M, Valkonen K (2013) Algal cultivation for lipid production in waste water. In: Arnold M (ed) Sustainable algal biomass products by cultivation in waste water flows. VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, p 147

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswald WJ (1963) Light efficiency of algae grown in sewage. Trans Am Soc Civ Eng 128:47–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswald WJ (2003) My 60 years in applied algology. J Appl Phycol 15:99–106

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Park JJ, Lechno-Yossef S, Wolk CP, Vieille C (2013) Cell-specific gene expression in Anabaena variabilis grown phototrophically, mixotrophically, and heterotrophically. BMC Genomic 14:759

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Patil PD, Gude VG (2011) Optimization of direct conversion of wet algae to biodiesel under supercritical methanol conditions. Bioresour Technol 102(1):118–122

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett-Heaps J, Schmid AMM, Edgar LA (1990) The cell biology of diatom valve formation. Prog Phycol Res 7:1–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Ponnuswamy I, Madhavan S, Shabudeen S (2013) Isolation and characterization of green microalgae for carbon sequestration, waste water treatment and bio-fuel production. Int J Bio-Sci Bio-Technol 5(2):17–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Radner RJ, Parker BC (1994) Commercial applications of algae: opportunities and constraints. J Appl Phycol 6:93–98

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Raeesossadati MJ, Ahmadzadeh H, McHenry MP, Moheimani NR (2014) CO2 bioremediation by microalgae in photobioreactors: impacts of biomass and CO2 concentrations, light, and temperature. Algal Res 6:78–85

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Ranganathan S, Narasimhan S, Muthukumar K (2008) An overview of enzymatic production of biodiesel. Bioresour Technol 99:3975–3981

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Rawson DS (1956) Algal indicators of trophic lake types. Limnol Oceanogr 1(1):18–25

    CrossRef  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Renewable fuels association (2012). http://www.ethanolrfa.org/pages/statistics

  • Rodolfi LC, Zittelli G, Bassi N, Padovani G, Biondi N, Bonini G, Tredici MR (2009) Microalgae for oil: strain selection, induction of lipid synthesis and outdoor mass cultivation in a low-cost photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 102(1):100–112

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Roessler PG (1988) Changes in the activities of various lipid and carbohydrate biosynthetic enzymes in the diatom Cyclotella cryptica in response to silicon deficiency. Arch Biochem Biophys 267:521–528

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Roessler PG (1990) Environmental control of glycerolipid metabolism in microalgae: commercial implications and future research directions. J Phycol 26:393–399

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Rosgaard L, de Porcellinis AJ, Jacobsen JH, Frigaard NU, Sakuragi Y (2012) Bioengineering of carbon fixation, biofuels, and biochemicals in cyanobacteria and plants. J Biotechnol 162(1):134–147

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Round FE, Crawford RM, Mann DG (1990) The diatoms: biology and morphology of the genera. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan J, Dunahay T, Benemann JR, Roessler P (1987) A look back at the U.S. Department of energy’s aquatic species program: Biodiesel from Algae. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO NERL/TP-580-24190

    Google Scholar 

  • Spolaore P, Joannis-Cassan C, Duran E, Isambert A (2006) Commercial applications of microalgae. J Biosci Bioeng 101:87–96

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Takagi M, Watanabe K, Yamaberi K, Yoshida T (2000) Limited feeding of potassium nitrate for intracellular lipid and triglyceride accumulation of Nannochloris sp. UTEX LB1999. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 54:112–117

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Walker TL, Collet C, Purton S (2005) Algal transgenics in the genomic era. J Phycol 41:1077–1093

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Wang W, Liu X, Lu X (2013) Engineering cyanobacteria to improve photosynthetic production of alka(e)nes. Biotechnol Biofuels 6:69

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Weissman JC, Goebel RP (1987) Factors affecting the photosynthetic yield of microalgae. FY 1986 Aquatic Species Program Annual Report, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colorado, SERI/SP-231-3071, pp 139–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams PJ, Laurens LML (2010) Microalgae as biodiesel & biomass feedstocks: Review & analysis of the biochemistry, energetics & economics. Energy Environ Sci 3:554

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Wisconsin department of natural resources (2010) Introduction to activated sludge study guide, bureau of science services, operator certification program, P.O. Box 7921, Madison, WI 53707. http://dnr.wi.gov

  • Woertz IC, Fulton L, Lundquist TJ (2009) Nutrient removal & greenhouse gas abatement with CO2-supplemented algal high rate ponds. In: Paper written for the WEFTEC annual conference, Water Environment Federation

    Google Scholar 

  • Yool A, Tyrrell T (2003) Role of diatoms in regulating the ocean’s silicon cycle. Global Biogeochem Cycles 17(4):1103–1124

    Google Scholar 

  • Zelitch I (1971) Photosynthesis, photorespiration and plant productivity. Academic Press, Waltham, p 275

    Google Scholar 

  • Zheng H, Yin J, Gao Z, Huang H, Ji X, Dou C (2011) Disruption of Chlorella vulgaris Cells for the release of biodiesel-producing lipids: a comparison of grinding, ultrasonication, bead milling, enzymatic lysis, and microwaves. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 164:1215–1224

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou Y, Schideman L, Yu G, Zhang Y (2013) A synergistic combination of algal wastewater treatment and hydrothermal biofuel production maximized by nutrient and carbon recycling. Energy Environ Sci 6:3765–3779

    CrossRef  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

H. Ahmadzadeh thanks ATF Committee for the financial support.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. AlgaXperts, LLC, Milwaukee, WI, USA

    Stephen R. Lyon

  2. Department of Chemistry, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

    Hossein Ahmadzadeh

  3. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, USA

    Marcia A. Murry

  4. Sinai Technology Corporation, Los Angeles, MI, USA

    Marcia A. Murry

Authors
  1. Stephen R. Lyon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hossein Ahmadzadeh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marcia A. Murry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hossein Ahmadzadeh .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Algae R&D Centre, Murdoch University, Murdoch, West Australia, Australia

    Navid R. Moheimani

  2. School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, Murdoch, West Australia, Australia

    Mark P. McHenry

  3. School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, Murdoch, West Australia, Australia

    Karne de Boer

  4. School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, Murdoch, West Australia, Australia

    Parisa A. Bahri

Rights and permissions

Reprints and Permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lyon, S.R., Ahmadzadeh, H., Murry, M.A. (2015). Algae-Based Wastewater Treatment for Biofuel Production: Processes, Species, and Extraction Methods. In: Moheimani, N., McHenry, M., de Boer, K., Bahri, P. (eds) Biomass and Biofuels from Microalgae. Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16640-7_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16640-7_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-16639-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-16640-7

  • eBook Packages: EnergyEnergy (R0)