Advertisement

Artificial Intelligence and Pro-Social Behaviour

  • Joanna J. BrysonEmail author
Chapter
Part of the Philosophical Studies Series book series (PSSP, volume 122)

Abstract

If artificial intelligence (AI) were achievable, what would the consequences be for human society? Perhaps surprisingly, the answer to this question is already at hand. We are achieving rapid and accelerating success in our quest to build AI. That very success—and the slowness with which both the academic community and the general public have come to recognise it—has shown how little we understand our own intelligence, and its role in our lives and culture. Here I attempt to address this problem of understanding, exploiting a variety of scientific evidence, including social simulation. I begin by reviewing current progress in AI, which is profound but underestimated. I suggest this lack of recognition is due to the mistaken belief that intelligence implies agency. I next examine the related question of human uniqueness: why do only we have language and extensive built culture? I use models and data to show that the propensities to use culture, share information and behave altruistically are neither unique to humans nor inexplicable to biology, but rather our uniqueness hinges on the extent of our capacities for communication and memory. Finally, I apply the impact of AI on extending our intelligence to these theories, to predict—and observe—consequences of AI on human societies and individual human lives. I make and support policy recommendations based on these predictions.

Keywords

Artificial intelligence Levels of selection Agency Human behavioural ecology Cognition Cooperation 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Lydia Harriss, Catrin Misselhorn, Miles Brundage and Evan Selinger for encouragement and discussions; David Gunkel and Will Lowe for debate; Misselhorn, Brundage, Selinger and Robin Dunbar for comments on an earlier draft; and Thomas König and the University of Mannheim SFB 884, The Political Economy of Reforms, for a quiet office to work in.

References

  1. Ackermann, Martin, Bärbel Stecher, Nikki E. Freed, Pascal Songhet, Wolf-Dietrich Hardt, and Michael Doebeli. 2008. Self-destructive cooperation mediated by phenotypic noise. Nature 454: 987–990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Arnold, Eckhart. 2015. How models fail? A critical look at the history of computer simulations of evolution in cooperation. In this volume.Google Scholar
  3. Atkinson, Quentin D., and Harvey Whitehouse. 2011. The cultural morphospace of ritual form: Examining modes of religiosity cross-culturally. Evolution and Human Behaviour 32: 50–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Axelrod, Robert. 1997. The complexity of cooperation: Agent-based models of competition and collaboration. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
  5. Barnosky, Anthony D. 2008. Megafauna biomass tradeoff as a driver of quaternary and future extinctions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105: 11543–11548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bate, Andrew M., and Frank M. Hilker. 2013. Predator–prey oscillations can shift when diseases become endemic. Journal of Theoretical Biology 316: 1–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Beauchamp, Nick. 2013. Predicting and interpolating state-level polling using twitter textual data. In New directions in analyzing text as data workshop, ed. Ken Benoit, Daniel Diermeier, and Arthur Spirling, London School of Economics, September.Google Scholar
  8. Bischof, Richard, H. Ali Dondas, Kabir Muhammad, S. Hameed, and Muhammad A. Nawaz. 2014. Being the underdog: An elusive small carnivore uses space with prey and time without enemies. Journal of Zoology 293(1): 40–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Bishop, Christopher M. 2006. Pattern recognition and machine learning. London: Springer.Google Scholar
  10. Bispham, John. 2006. Rhythm in music: What is it? Who has it? And why? Music Perception 24: 125–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Brooks, Kim. 2014. The day I left my son in the car. Salon. http://www.salon.com/2014/06/03/the_day_i_left_my_son_in_the_car/. Accessed 3 June 2014.
  12. Bryson, Joanna J. 2008. Embodiment versus memetics. Mind & Society 7: 77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Bryson, Joanna J. 2009. Representations underlying social learning and cultural evolution. Interaction Studies 10: 77–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Bryson, Joanna J., and Philip P. Kime. 2011. Just an artifact: Why machines are perceived as moral agents. In Proceedings of the 22nd International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1641–1646. Barcelona: Morgan Kaufmann.Google Scholar
  15. Bryson, Joanna J., James Mitchell, and Simon T. Powers. 2014. Explaining cultural variation in public goods games. In Applied evolutionary anthropology: Darwinian approaches to contemporary world issues, ed. M.A. Gibson and D.W. Lawson, 201–222. Heidelberg: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Burkart, Judith M., O. Allon, F. Amici, Claudia Fichtel, Christa Finkenwirth, Heschl Adolf, J. Huber, K. Isler, Z.K. Kosonen, E. Martins, E.J. Meulman, R. Richiger, K. Rueth, B. Spillmann, S. Wiesendanger, and C.P. van Schaik. 2014. The evolutionary origin of human hyper-cooperation. Nature Communications 5: 4747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Carter, Alecia J., S. English, and Tim H. Clutton-Brock. 2014. Cooperative personalities and social niche specialization in female meerkats. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 27: 815–825.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Chivers, Douglas P., and Maud C.O. Ferrari. 2014. Social learning of predators by tadpoles: Does food restriction alter the efficacy of tutors as information sources? Animal Behaviour 89: 93–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Christakis, Nicholas A., and James H. Fowler. 2014. Friendship and natural selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(Suppl 3): 10796–10801.Google Scholar
  20. Crockford, Catherine, Roman M. Wittig, Roger Mundry, and Klaus Zuberbühler. 2012. Wild chimpanzees inform ignorant group members of danger. Current Biology 22: 142–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Darwin, Charles. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London: John Murray.Google Scholar
  22. Dawkins, Richard. 1976. The selfish gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  23. Dawkins, Richard. 1982. The extended phenotype: The gene as the unit of selection. Oxford: W.H. Freeman & Company.Google Scholar
  24. Dennett, Daniel C. 2002. The new replicators. In The encyclopedia of evolution, vol. 1, ed. Mark Pagel, E83–E92. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  25. Depew, David J. 2003. Baldwin and his many effects. In Evolution and learning: The Baldwin effect reconsidered, ed. Bruce H. Weber and David J. Depew. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press.Google Scholar
  26. Derex, Maxime, Marie-Pauline Beugin, Bernard Godelle, and Michel Raymond. 2013. Experimental evidence for the influence of group size on cultural complexity. Nature 503: 389–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Dimitriu, Tatiana, Chantal Lotton, Julien Bénard-Capelle, Dusan Misevic, Sam P. Brown, Ariel B. Lindner, and François Taddei. 2014. Genetic information transfer promotes cooperation in bacteria. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111: 11103–11108.Google Scholar
  28. van Doorn, Gerrit Sander, and Michael Taborsky. 2012. The evolution of generalized reciprocity on social interaction networks. Evolution 66: 651–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Dunbar, Robin I.M. 1992. Time: A hidden constraint on the behavioural ecology of baboons. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 31: 35–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Dunbar, Robin I.M. 2002. Modelling primate behavioral ecology. International Journal of Primatology 23: 785–819.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Dunbar, Robin I.M., Amanda H. Korstjens, Julia Lehmann, and British Academy Centenary Research Project. 2009. Time as an ecological constraint. Biological Reviews 84: 413–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. El Mouden, Claire, Jean-Baptiste André, Oliver Morin, and Daniel Nettle. 2014. Cultural transmission and the evolution of human behaviour: A general approach based on the Price equation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 27: 231–241.Google Scholar
  33. Eliassen, Sigrunn, and Christian Jørgensen. 2014. Extra-pair mating and evolution of cooperative neighbourhoods. PLoS One 9: e99878.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Eyben, Florian, Felix Weninger, Nicolas Lehment, Björn Schuller, and Gerhard Rigoll. 2013. Affective video retrieval: Violence detection in Hollywood movies by large-scale segmental feature extraction. PLoS One 8: e78506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Ferguson-Gow, Henry, Seirian Sumner, Andrew F.G. Bourke, and Kate E. Jones. 2014. Colony size predicts division of labour in attine ants. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281: 20141411. doi:  10.1098/rspb.2014.1411.
  36. Fisher, Ronald A. 1930. The genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Fitch, W. Tecumseh. 2000. The evolution of speech: A comparative review. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4: 258–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Fitch, W. Tecumseh., and Klaus Zuberbühler. 2013. Primate precursors to human language: Beyond discontinuity. In The evolution of emotional communication: From sounds in nonhuman mammals to speech and music in man, ed. Eckart Altenmüller, Sabine Schmidt, and Elke Zimmerman, 26–48. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  39. Folse, Henry J., and Joan Roughgarden. 2012. Direct benefits of genetic mosaicism and intraorganismal selection: Modeling coevolution between a long-lived tree and a short-lived herbivore. Evolution 66: 1091–1113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Gardner, Andy, and Stuart A. West. 2014. Inclusive fitness: 50 years on. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 369: 20130356.Google Scholar
  41. Gardner, Andy, Stuard A. West, and Geoff Wild. 2011. The genetical theory of kin selection. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 24: 1020–1043.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Gintis, Herbert, Samuel Bowles, Robert Boyd, and Ernst Fehr. 2005. Moral sentiments and material interests: Origins, evidence, and consequences, Chapter 1. In Moral sentiments and material interests: The foundations of cooperation in economic life, ed. Herbert Gintis, Samuel Bowles, Robert Boyd, and Ernst Fehr, 3–39. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
  43. Gray, Peter B., Justin R. Garcia, Benjamin S. Crosier, and Helen E. Fisher. 2015. Dating and sexual behavior among single parents of young children in the United States. Journal of Sex Research 52: 121–128.Google Scholar
  44. Griffin, Harry J., Min S.H. Aung, Bernardino Romera-Paredes, Ciaran McLoughlin, Gary McKeown, William Curran, and Nadia Bianchi-Berthouze. 2013. Laughter type recognition from whole body motion. In Affective computing and intelligent interaction (ACII), 2013 Humaine Association conference, Geneva, CH, 349–355.Google Scholar
  45. Gunkel, David J. 2012. The machine question: Critical perspectives on AI, robots, and ethics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
  46. Gürses, Fahriye Seda. 2010. Multilateral privacy requirements analysis in online social network services. Ph.D. thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Department of Computer Science.Google Scholar
  47. Haberl, Helmut, K. Heinz Erb, Fridolin Krausmann, Veronika Gaube, Alberte Bondeau, Christoph Plutzar, Simone Gingrich, Wolfgang Lucht, and Marina Fischer-Kowalski. 2007. Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in earth’s terrestrial ecosystems. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 12942–12947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Hamilton, William D. 1964. The genetical evolution of social behaviour. Journal of Theoretical Biology 7: 1–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Hamilton, William D. 1971. Geometry for the selfish herd. Journal of Theoretical Biology 31: 295–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Hartzog, Woodrow, and Frederic Stutzman. 2013. Obscurity by design. Washington Law Review 88: 385–418.Google Scholar
  51. Henrich, Joseph, Robert Boyd, Samuel Bowles, Colin Camerer, Ernst Fehr, Herbert Gintis, and Richard McElreath. 2001. Cooperation, reciprocity and punishment in fifteen small-scale societies. American Economic Review 91: 73–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Herrmann, Benedikt, Christian Thöni, and Simon Gächter. 2008a. Antisocial punishment across societies. Science 319: 1362–1367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Herrmann, Benedikt, Christian Thöni, and Simon Gächter. 2008b. Supporting online material for antisocial punishment across societies. Science 319.Google Scholar
  54. Hertz, John, Anders Krogh, and Richard G. Palmer. 1991. Introduction to the theory of neural computation. Redwood City: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
  55. Hinton, Geoffrey, Simon Osindero, and Yee Teh. 2006. A fast learning algorithm for deep belief nets. Neural Computation 18: 1527–1554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Hobaiter, Catherine, Anne Marijke Schel, Kevin Langergraber, and Klaus Zuberbühler. 2014. ‘Adoption’ by maternal siblings in wild chimpanzees. PLoS One 9: e103777.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Hofmann, Martin, Jürgen Geiger, Sebastian Bachmann, Björn Schuller, and Gerhard Rigoll. 2014. The TUM gait from audio, image and depth (GAID) database: Multimodal recognition of subjects and traits. Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation 25: 195–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Hogan, Kelly E., and Kate L. Laskowski. 2013. Indirect information transfer: Three-spined sticklebacks use visual alarm cues from frightened conspecifics about an unseen predator. Ethology 119: 999–1005.Google Scholar
  59. Huang, Bidan, Sahar El-Khoury, Miao Li, Joanna J. Bryson, and Aude Billard. 2013. Learning a real time grasping strategy. In IEEE international conference on robotics and automation (ICRA), Karlsruhe, 593–600.Google Scholar
  60. Inglehart, Ronald, Miguel Basánez, Jaime Díez-Medrano, Lock Halman, and Ruud Luijkx (eds.). 2004. Human beliefs and values: A cross-cultural sourcebook based on the 1999–2002 values surveys. México: Siglo XXI Editores.Google Scholar
  61. Jacobs, Robert A., Michael I. Jordan, Steven J. Nowlan, and Geoffrey E. Hinton. 1991. Adaptive mixtures of local experts. Neural Computation 3: 79–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Jaeggi, Adrian V., Maria A. van Noordwijk, and Carel P. van Schaik. 2008. Begging for information: Mother–offspring food sharing among wild Bornean orangutans. American Journal of Primatology 70: 533–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Keller, Laurent. 1999. Levels of selection in evolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
  64. Keller, Evelyn F., and Lee A. Segel. 1970. Initiation of slime mold aggregation viewed as an instability. Journal of Theoretical Biology 26: 399–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Kitano, Hiroaki. 2004. Biological robustness. Nature Reviews Genetics 5: 826–837.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Kleinsmith, Andrea, and Nadia Bianchi-Berthouze. 2013. Affective body expression perception and recognition: A survey. IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing 4: 15–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Kokko, Hanna. 2007. Modelling for field biologists and other interesting people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Krosch, Amy R., and David M. Amodio. 2014. Economic scarcity alters the perception of race. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111: 9079–9084.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Krützen, Michael, Janet Mann, Michael R. Heithaus, Richard C. Connor, Lars Bejder, and William B. Sherwin. 2005. Cultural transmission of tool use in bottlenose dolphins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102: 8939–8943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Lamba, Shakti, and Ruth Mace. 2011. Demography and ecology drive variation in cooperation across human populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108: 14426–14430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Le Roux, Nicolas, and Yoshua Bengio. 2008. Representational power of restricted Boltzmann machines and deep belief networks. Neural Computation 20: 1631–1649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Ledgard, Stewart F. 2001. Nitrogen cycling in low input legume-based agriculture, with emphasis on legume/grass pastures. Plant and Soil 228: 43–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Lee, Ellie, Jan Macvarish, and Jennie Bristow. 2010. Risk, health and parenting culture. Health, Risk & Society 12: 293–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Leimgruber, Kristin L., Adrian F. Ward, Jane Widness, Michael I. Norton, Kristina R. Olson, Kurt Gray, and Laurie R. Santos. 2014. Give what you get: Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) and 4-Year-old children pay forward positive and negative outcomes to conspecifics. PLoS One 9: e87035.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Lopez De Mantaras, Ramon, David McSherry, Derek Bridge, David Leake, Barry Smyth, Susan Craw, Boi Faltings, Mary Lou Maher, Michael T. Cox, Kenneth Forbus, Mark Keane, Agnar Aamodt, and Ian Watson. 2005. Retrieval, reuse, revision and retention in case-based reasoning. The Knowledge Engineering Review 20: 215–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. McComb, Karen, Cynthia Moss, Sarah M. Durant, Lucy Baker, and Soila Sayialel. 2001. Matriarchs as repositories of social knowledge in African elephants. Science 292: 491–494.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. McLachlan, Geoffrey, and Thriyambakam Krishnan. 2008. The EM algorithm and extensions, vol. 382, 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
  78. MacLean, R. Craig, Ayari Fuentes-Hernandez, Duncan Greig, Laurence D. Hurst, and Ivana Gudelj. 2010. A mixture of “cheats” and “co-operators” can enable maximal group benefit. PLoS Biology 8: e1000486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Margulis, Lynn, and Gregory Hinkle. 1997. The biota and gaia. In slanted truths, 207–220. New York: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Marshall, James A.R. 2011. Ultimate causes and the evolution of altruism. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 65: 503–512. doi: 10.1007/s00265-010-1110-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Marshall, James A.R., Rafal Bogacz, Anna Dornhaus, Robert Planqué, Tim Kovacs, and Nigel R. Franks. 2009. On optimal decision-making in brains and social insect colonies. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 6: 1065–1074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Mesoudi, Alex, Andrew Whiten, and Kevin N. Laland. 2004. Is human cultural evolution Darwinian? Evidence reviewed from the perspective of the origin of species. Evolution 58: 1–11.Google Scholar
  83. Okasha, Samir. 2012. Social justice, genomic justice and the veil of ignorance: Harsanyi meets Mendel. Economics and Philosophy 28: 43–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. Perry, Susan. 2011. Social traditions and social learning in capuchin monkeys (Cebus). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences 366: 988–996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Perry, Susan, and J.H. Manson. 2003. Traditions in monkeys. Evolutionary Anthropology 12: 71–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Pinker, Steven. 2012. The better angels of our nature: The decline of violence in history and its causes. London: Penguin.Google Scholar
  87. Powers, Simon T., Alexandra S. Penn, and Richard A. Watson. 2011. The concurrent evolution of cooperation and the population structures that support it. Evolution 65: 1527–1543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Powers, Simon T., Daniel J. Taylor, and Joanna J. Bryson. 2012. Punishment can promote defection in group-structured populations. Journal of Theoretical Biology 311: 107–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Powles, Julia. 2014. What we can salvage from ‘right to be forgotten’ ruling. Wired, 15 May.Google Scholar
  90. Prediger, Sebastian, Björn Vollan, and Benedikt Herrmann. 2013. Resource scarcity, spite and cooperation. German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA) working papers 227. Hamburg.Google Scholar
  91. Preuschoft, Signe, and Carel P. van Schaik. 2000. Dominance and communication: Conflict management in various social settings, Chapter 6. In Natural conflict resolution, ed. Filippo Aurel and Frans B.M. de Waal, 77–105. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar
  92. Price, George R. 1972. Fisher’s ‘fundamental theorem’ made clear. Annals of Human Genetics 36: 129–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Rand, David G., Joseph J. Armao, Mayuko Nakamaru, and Hisashi Ohtsuki. 2010. Anti-social punishment can prevent the co-evolution of punishment and cooperation. Journal of Theoretical Biology 265: 624–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Rankin, Daniel J., Eduardo P.C. Rocha, and Sam P. Brown. 2010. What traits are carried on mobile genetic elements, and why? Heredity 106: 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Rawls, John. 1980. Kantian constructivism in moral theory. The Journal of Philosophy 77: 515–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Roberts, S. Craig, and Havlicek Jan. 2011. Evolutionary psychology and perfume design. In Applied evolutionary psychology, ed. S. Craig Roberts, 330–348. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Rolian, Campbell. 2014. Genes, development, and evolvability in primate evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 23: 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. Rosenbaum, Sara. 2014. When religion meets workers’ rights: Hobby Lobby and Conestoga Wood Specialties. Milbank Quarterly 92: 202–206.Google Scholar
  99. Rothschild, David, Sharad Goel, Andrew Gelman, and Douglas Rivers. 2015. The mythical swing voter. In Collective intelligence, MIT. Unpublished preprint presented at conference. Available on arXiv:1406.7581.Google Scholar
  100. Roughgarden, Joan. 2012. Teamwork, pleasure and bargaining in animal social behaviour. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 25: 1454–1462.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Roughgarden, Joan, Meeko Oishi, and Erol Akçay. 2006. Reproductive social behavior: Cooperative games to replace sexual selection. Science 311: 965–969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Schaal, Stefan, and Christopher G. Atkeson. 1998. Constructive incremental learning from only local information. Neural Computation 10: 2047–2084.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. Schroeder, Kari Britt, Gillian V. Pepper, and Daniel Nettle. 2014. Local norms of cheating and the cultural evolution of crime and punishment: A study of two urban neighborhoods. PeerJ 2: e450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. Selinger, Evan, and Woodrow Hartzog. 2014. Obscurity and privacy. In Routledge companion to philosophy of technology, ed. Joseph Pitt and Ashley Shew. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
  105. Seth, Anil K., Tony J. Prescott, and Joanna J. Bryson (eds.). 2012. Modelling natural action selection. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  106. Shannon, Claude E. 2001. A mathematical theory of communication. ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review 5: 3–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Shultz, Susanne, and Laura V. Finlayson. 2010. Large body and small brain and group sizes are associated with predator preferences for mammalian prey. Behavioral Ecology 21: 1073–1079.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. Shultz, Susanne, Christopher Opie, and Quentin D. Atkinson. 2011. Stepwise evolution of stable sociality in primates. Nature 479: 219–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. Silva, Antonio S., and Ruth Mace. 2014. Cooperation and conflict: Field experiments in Northern Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281: 20141435.Google Scholar
  110. Skemp, Richard R. 1961. Reflective intelligence and mathematics. British Journal of Educational Psychology 31: 45–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. Smith, Kenny, and Simon Kirby. 2008. Cultural evolution: Implications for understanding the human language faculty and its evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences 363: 3591–3603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. Sober, Elliott, and David Sloan Wilson. 1998. Unto others: The evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  113. Staddon, John Eric R. 1975. A note on the evolutionary significance of “supernormal” stimuli. The American Naturalist 109: 541–545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. Sterck, E.H.M., D.P. Watts, and C.P. van Schaik. 1997. The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 41: 291–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. Stoddart, David Michael. 1990. The scented ape: The biology and culture of human odour. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  116. Sylwester, Karolina, Benedikt Herrmann, and Joanna J. Bryson. 2013. Homo homini lupus? Explaining antisocial punishment. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics 6: 167–188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. Sylwester, Karolina, James Mitchell, and Joanna J. Bryson. 2014. Punishment as aggression: Uses and consequences of costly punishment across populations. To be resubmitted.Google Scholar
  118. Sytch, Maxim, and Adam Tatarynowicz. 2014. Friends and foes: The dynamics of dual social structures. Academy of Management Journal 57: 585–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. Taylor, Daniel J. 2014. Evolution of the social contract. Ph.D. thesis, University of Bath, Department of Computer Science.Google Scholar
  120. Thierry, Bernard. 2007. Unity in diversity: Lessons from macaque societies. Evolutionary Anthropology 16: 224–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. Tinbergen, N., and A.C. Perdeck. 1950. On the stimulus situation releasing the begging response in the newly hatched herring gull chick (Larus argentatus argentatus Pont.). Behaviour 3: 1–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. Trewavas, Anthony. 2005. Green plants as intelligent organisms. Trends in Plant Science 10: 413–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. Valstar, Michel F., and Maja Pantic. 2012. Fully automatic recognition of the temporal phases of facial actions. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B: Cybernetics 42: 28–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. Vernon, David, Giorgio Metta, and Giulio Sandini. 2007. A survey of artificial cognitive systems: Implications for the autonomous development of mental capabilities in computational agents. IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation 11: 151–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. Wang, Wei, David Rothschild, Sharad Goel, and Andrew Gelman. 2015. Forecasting elections with non-representative polls. International Journal of Forecasting. In press.Google Scholar
  126. Ward, Adrian F. 2013. Supernormal: How the internet is changing our memories and our minds. Psychological Inquiry 24: 341–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. Whitehouse, Harvey, Ken Kahn, Michael E. Hochberg, and Joanna J. Bryson. 2012. The role for simulations in theory construction for the social sciences: Case studies concerning divergent modes of religiosity. Religion, Brain & Behavior 2: 182–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. Whiten, Andrew, Jane Goodall, William C. McGew, Toyoaki Nishida, Vernon Reynolds, Yukimaru Sugiyama, Caroline E.G. Tutin, Richard W. Wrangham, and Christophe Boesch. 1999. Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature 399: 682–685.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. Williams Woolley, Anita, Christopher F. Chabris, Alex Pentland, Nada Hashmi, and Thomas W. Malone. 2010. Evidence for a collective intelligence factor in the performance of human groups. Science 330: 686–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. Wilson, David Sloan. 1989. Levels of selection: An alternative to individualism in biology and the human sciences. Social Networks 11: 257–272. Special issue on non-human primate networks.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. Wittkower, D.E., Evan Selinger, and Lucinda Rush. 2013. Public philosophy of technology: Motivations, barriers, and reforms. Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology 17: 179–200.Google Scholar
  132. Wray, Alison. 1998. Protolanguage as a holistic system for social interaction. Language and Communication 18: 47–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. Wray, Alison, and George W. Grace. 2007. The consequences of talking to strangers: Evolutionary corollaries of socio-cultural influences on linguistic form. Lingua 117: 543–578.Google Scholar
  134. Zahavi, Amotz. 1977. The testing of a bond. Animal Behaviour 25: 246–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Computer ScienceUniversity of BathBathUK

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options