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Climate Change Impacts on High-Altitude Ecosystems pp 289–341Cite as

Climate Change Impact on High-Altitude Ecosystems and Their Impact on Human Communities

Case Study: San Bernardino Mountains and Urban Communities Interface: Historical, Contemporary, and Future

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Abstract

High-altitude ecosystems and human communities are linked. Each impacts each other. This chapter focuses on a case study of the San Bernardino Mountain range, elevation 3502 m (11,487 ft.) and is situated in Southern California in proximity of millions of inhabitants who live in the mountain range and at its base, all impacted by its ecosystem and the growing influence of climate change. Chapter sections include:

  1. 1.

    Origins of the San Bernardino Mountain range ecosystem

  2. 2.

    High-altitude ecosystem DNA: What is this mountain ecosystem made of? And what is its quantitative and qualitative natural capital value?

  3. 3.

    Historical relationships between human communities and this high-altitude ecosystem

  4. 4.

    Modern relationships: Lake Arrowhead community, San Bernardino and neighboring communities, and the new community, Arrowhead Springs

  5. 5.

    The “elephant in the room”: climate change and its impact on high-altitude ecosystems and the resulting impact on human communities

  6. 6.

    Conclusion: What new paths can we take? What are our options in the coming decades?

  7. 7.

    The San Bernardino Mountains, along with the nearby San Gabriel and San Jacinto ranges, is considered a sky island—a high mountain region whose plants and animals vary dramatically from those in the surrounding semiarid lands. The San Bernardinos in particular comprise the largest forested region in Southern California, and support some 1600 species of plants. Approximately, 440 species of wildlife inhabit the mountains, including many endangered species.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Kapos et al. 2009.

  2. 2.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005b, p. 684).

  3. 3.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005b, p. 684).

  4. 4.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005b, pp. 684–685).

  5. 5.

    The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly 810 miles (1300 km) through California in the USA. It forms the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and its motion is right-lateral strike slip (horizontal). The fault divides into three segments, each with different characteristics, and a different degree of earthquake risk. Although the most significant (Southern) segment only dates back about 5 million years, the oldest sections were formed by the subduction of a spreading ridge 30 million years ago.

  6. 6.

    http://www.bigbearhistory.org/sbdomtns.htm.

  7. 7.

    U.S. Geological Survey (2006).

  8. 8.

    Spotila et al. (1998–2006).

  9. 9.

    Mattic and Morton (2000).

  10. 10.

    Eckis (1928).

  11. 11.

    Gandhok et al. (1999).

  12. 12.

    http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/archive/scamp/html/scg_trans_sbmt.html, USGS, Southern California Geological Survey, Bailey and Jahns (1954); Dibblee (1982b); Matti and Morton (1993); Matti et al. (1992a, 1992b); Miller (1946); Sadler(1981, 1982); Spotila et al. (1999).

  13. 13.

    U.S. Forest Service (2009a).

  14. 14.

    U.S. Forest Service (2009a)

  15. 15.

    “Endangered species”. Mountains Group—San Gorgonio Chapter. Sierra Club.

  16. 16.

    “Black Bear Management Plan.” California Department of Fish and Game (1998–2007).

  17. 17.

    “Black Bear Management Plan”. California Department of Fish and Game (1998–2007).

  18. 18.

    “San Bernardino County History.” County of San Bernardino (2008).

  19. 19.

    Robinson and Harris (2006).

  20. 20.

    Big Bear Valley Historical Society (2013).

  21. 21.

    U.S. Forest Service (2009b).

  22. 22.

    Clugston, Steve. “The Real El Camino: California Missions in Another Light”. University of California Riverside.

  23. 23.

    Guinn (1902).

  24. 24.

    http://www.bigbearhistory.org/foxfarm.htm.

  25. 25.

    http://www.bigbearhistory.org/mining.htm.

  26. 26.

    http://www.bigbearhistory.org/goldrush.htm.

  27. 27.

    http://www.bigbearhistory.org/dams.htm.

  28. 28.

    http://www.bigbearhistory.org/dams.htm, pp. 34–35.

  29. 29.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Bernardino_Mountains#cite_note-53.

  30. 30.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Bernardino_Mountains#cite_note-54.

  31. 31.

    “Natural capital is the land, air, water, living organisms, and all formations of the Earth’s biosphere that provide us with ecosystem goods and services imperative for survival and well-being. Furthermore, it is the basis for all human economic activity.” International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD), Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada (2010).

  32. 32.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005a, p. 9).

  33. 33.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005a, p. 9).

  34. 34.

    Troy and Wilson (2006, pp. 435–449).

  35. 35.

    Robinson and Harris (2006, p. 1).

  36. 36.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Arrowhead,_California#cite_note-12.

  37. 37.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bear_City,_California#cite_note-3.

  38. 38.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bear_Lake,_California#cite_note-8.

  39. 39.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar_Glen,_California#cite_note-3.

  40. 40.

    U.S. Department of Commerce (2012).

  41. 41.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005a, p. 31).

  42. 42.

    The three models are: the National Center for Atmospheric Research’s Parallel Climate Model (PCM), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Geophysical Fluids Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) version 2.1, and the French Centre National de Recherches Météorologiques (CNRM).

  43. 43.

    The IPCC’s Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A2 and B1 scenarios.

  44. 44.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 1).

  45. 45.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 1).

  46. 46.

    Locations where the temperature, moisture, and other environmental conditions are suitable for persistence of species.

  47. 47.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 24).

  48. 48.

    Messner et al. (2005, pp. 24–25).

  49. 49.

    Currently, there are approximately 440 species of fauna. U.S. Forest Service (2009a).

  50. 50.

    “Endangered Species”. Mountains Group-San Gorgonio Chapter. Sierra Club.

  51. 51.

    Currently, there are 1600 species of flora. Grinnell (1908).

  52. 52.

    Douglas Hawk, eHOW, Demand Media Inc., September 22, 2011.

  53. 53.

    US Fish & Wildlife Service, US Department of the Interior, March 27, 2013.

  54. 54.

    U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (2010).

  55. 55.

    http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/05/district-by-district-climate-change-in-los-angeles/?_r=0, Kaufman (2013).

  56. 56.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 38).

  57. 57.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 14).

  58. 58.

    El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

  59. 59.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 21).

  60. 60.

    Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS).

  61. 61.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 22).

  62. 62.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 2).

  63. 63.

    Messner et al. (2005, pp. 41–42).

  64. 64.

    Messner et al. (2005, pp. 26–27).

  65. 65.

    www.sove.org/Journal%20PDF/December%202004/5Lang%2003-44.pdf.

  66. 66.

    www.sove.org/Journal%20PDF/December%202004/5Lang%2003-44.pdf.

  67. 67.

    Smith and Mendelsohn (2006).

  68. 68.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 40).

  69. 69.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 40).

  70. 70.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 42).

  71. 71.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 28).

  72. 72.

    Messner et al. (2005, pp. 29–30).

  73. 73.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 34).

  74. 74.

    Messner et al. (2005, pp. 42–43).

  75. 75.

    Available at: www.ornl.gov/sci/sap_4.5/energy_impacts/sap4_5final_rvwdrft.pdf.

  76. 76.

    Stern et al. (1998).

  77. 77.

    Messner et al. (2005, pp. 35–36).

  78. 78.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 35).

  79. 79.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 39).

  80. 80.

    Messner et al. (2005, p. 36).

  81. 81.

    USGBC LEED, ESTIDAMA, QSAS, GREEN STAR, BREEAM are a few of the green building rating programs worldwide.

  82. 82.

    Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute (2005a, pp. 93–100).

  83. 83.

    Natural Capital Declaration (2012).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Sustainable Environment Associates Corporation, Denver, CO, USA

    Paul W. Bierman-Lytle

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  1. Paul W. Bierman-Lytle
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Correspondence to Paul W. Bierman-Lytle .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

    Münir Öztürk

  2. Faculty of Forestry, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

    Khalid Rehman Hakeem

  3. Faculty of Forestry, University Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

    I. Faridah-Hanum

  4. Department of Geogaraphy, Balikesir University, Balikesir, Turkey

    Recep Efe

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Bierman-Lytle, P. (2015). Climate Change Impact on High-Altitude Ecosystems and Their Impact on Human Communities. In: Öztürk, M., Hakeem, K., Faridah-Hanum, I., Efe, R. (eds) Climate Change Impacts on High-Altitude Ecosystems. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12859-7_12

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