Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Central Retinal Vein Occlusion

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders

Abstract

In 1855, Liebreich [1] first described the clinical picture of retinal vein occlusion and called it “retinal apoplexy.” Michel [2] established it as a clinical entity resulting from thrombosis in 1878. Duke-Elder and Dobree [3] accurately summarized the state of knowledge on retinal vein occlusion in 1967 when he stated: “Since that time (von Michel’s) the condition has been the subject of almost continuous research but nevertheless, even today, many points both in the aetiology and in the intimate mechanism of the obstruction are still unelucidated.” Later advances, however, have provided a good deal of new information on various aspects of CRVO. The major problem in reviewing the information is that the majority of the reports in the literature have combined all types of retinal vein occlusions in one group, rather than describing information specifically on CRVO separately. I plan to discuss CRVO to provide the latest information on this common, important disease.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Liebreich R. Ophthalmoskopische Notizen. 3. Apoplexia retinae. Albrecht von Graefes Archiv für Ophthalmologie. 1855;1(2):346–51.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Michel J. Die spontane thrombose der vena centralis des opticus. Graefes ArchClinExp Ophthalmol. 1878;24(2):37–70.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Duke-Elder S, Dobree JH. System of ophthalmology, vol. 10: Diseases of the retina. London: Kimpton; 1967. p. 98.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Hayreh SS. Discussion: an experimental study of the central retinal vein occlusion. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1964;84:586–93.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Hayreh SS. Occlusion of the central retinal vessels. Br J Ophthalmol. 1965;49(12):626–45.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Hayreh SS. Anatomy and physiology of the optic nerve head. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1974;78:240–54.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of oedema of the optic disc (Papilloedema): a preliminary report. Br J Ophthalmol. 1964;48:522–43.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Hayreh SS. Optic disc edema in raised intracranial pressure. V. Pathogenesis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1977;95(9):1553–65.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Kohner EM, Cappin JM. Do medical conditions have an influence on central retinal vein occlusions? Proc R Soc Med. 1974;67(10):1052–4.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Dodson PM, Galton DJ, Winder AF. Retinal vascular abnormalities in the hyperlipidaemias. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1981;101(1):17–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Elman MJ, Bhatt AK, Quinlan PM, Enger C. The risk for systemic vascular diseases and mortality in patients with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1990;97(11):1543–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. The Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. Risk factors for central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(5):545–54.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Hayreh SS, Klugman MR, Beri M, Kimura AE, Podhajsky P. Differentiation of ischemic from non-ischemic central retinal vein occlusion during the early acute phase. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1990;228(3):201–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B, McCarthy MJ, Podhajsky P. Systemic diseases associated with various types of retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(1):61–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hayreh SS, Hayreh MS. Hemi-central retinal vein occlusion. Pathogenesis, clinical features, and natural history. Arch Ophthalmol. 1980;98(9):1600–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Hayreh SS. Scientific literature and gospel truth. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2000;48(2):93–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Teich SA, Sonnabend J. Central retinal vein occlusion in a patient with AIDS. Case report. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106(11):1508–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Roberts SP, Haefs TM. Central retinal vein occlusion in a middle-aged adult with HIV infection. Optom Vis Sci. 1992;69(7):567–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Friedman SM, Margo CE. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusions in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Clinicopathologic correlation. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113(9):1184–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Schiemann U, Steins M, Knospe V, Riedasch M, Domschke W, Stoll R. Coincidence of cytomegalovirus retinitis and central retinal vein occlusion in a patient with hemophilia B and AIDS. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 1999;13(1):7–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Roth DB, McCabe CM, Davis JL. HIV-related occlusive vasculitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999;117(5):696–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Biswas J, Deka S, Padmaja S, Madhavan HN, Kumarasamy N, Solomon S. Central retinal vein occlusion due to herpes zoster as the initial presenting sign in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2001;9(2):125–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Wen F, Chen X, Liao R. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusions in a Chinese patient with HIV-infection. Int Ophthalmol. 2001;24(3):173–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Dunn JP, Yamashita A, Kempen JH, Jabs DA. Retinal vascular occlusion in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Retina. 2005;25(6):759–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Lee MW, Fong KS, Hsu LY, Lim WK. Optic nerve toxoplasmosis and orbital inflammation as initial presentation of AIDS. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244(11):1542–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Gharai S, Venkatesh P, Tandon R, Garg S. Peripheral ulcerative keratitis and central retinal vein occlusion as the initial manifestation of HIV infection. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2007;15(5):407–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Yeh S, Lam HY, Albini TA, Holz ER. Central retinal vein occlusion in an AIDS patient with presumed Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Can J Ophthalmol. 2008;43(3):372–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Welling JD, Tarabishy AB, Christoforidis JB. Cytomegalovirus retinitis after central retinal vein occlusion in a patient on systemic immunosuppression: does venooclusive disease predispose to cytomegalovirus retinitis in patients already at risk? Clin Ophthalmol. 2012;6:601–3.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Brunette I, Boghen D. Central retinal vein occlusion complicating spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistula. Case report. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987;105(4):464–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Hashimoto M, Yokota A, Matsuoka S, Tsukamoto Y, Higashi J. Central retinal vein occlusion after treatment of cavernous dural arteriovenous malformation. Am J Neuroradiol. 1989;10(5 Suppl):S30–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Suzuki Y, Kase M, Yokoi M, Arikado T, Miyasaka K. Development of central retinal vein occlusion in dural carotid-cavernous fistula. Ophthalmologica. 1989;199(1):28–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Komiyama M, Yamanaka K, Nagata Y, Ishikawa H. Dural carotid-cavernous sinus fistula and central retinal vein occlusion: a case report and a review of the literature. Surg Neurol. 1990;34(4):255–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Schmidt D, Schumacher M. Central vein occlusion as a sequela of spontaneous arteriovenous fistula of the carotid artery to the cavernous sinus. Fortschr Ophthalmol. 1991;88(6):683–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Tellouck L, Schweitzer C, Barreau X, Colin J. Dural arteriovenous fistula of the sigmoid sinus with a clinical expression on the opposite eye: a case report. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2012;35(3):191. e191–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Tseng MY, Chen YC, Lin YY, Chu SJ, Tsai SH. Simultaneous bilateral central retinal vein occlusion as the initial presentation of acute myeloid leukemia. Am J Med Sci. 2010;339(4):387–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Kang SW, Kim SK. Optic neuropathy and central retinal vascular obstruction as initial manifestations of acute retinal necrosis. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2001;45(4):425–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. el-Asrar AM, al-Momen AK, Alamro SA, Gader AG, Tabbara KF. Bilateral central retinal vein thrombosis in Behçet’s disease. Clin Rheumatol. 1996;15(5):511–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. El Fekih L, Khaldi N, Hmaied W, Ksantini I, Mestiri A, Doggi M. Retinal venous occlusion in Behçet’s disease. Rev Med Interne. 2007;28(11):742–5.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Chung H, Kim KH, Kim JG, Lee SY, Yoon YH. Retinal complications in patients with solid organ or bone marrow transplantations. Transplantation. 2007;83(6):694–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Corvi F, Querques G, Lattanzio R, Preziosa C, Parodi MB, Bandello F. Central retinal vein occlusion in a young patient following cannabis smoke inhalation. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2014;24(3):437–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Sharma S, Cruess AF. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with cavernous sinus thrombosis. Can J Ophthalmol. 1996;31(5):255–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Zaninetti M, Stangos AN, Abdo G, Pournaras CJ. Cavernous sinus thrombosis elicited by a central retinal vein venous stasis retinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2005;243(8):834–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Hamann S, Johansen S. Combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion in Churg-Strauss syndrome: case report. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2006;84(5):703–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Aggarwal RS, Mishra VV, Aggarwal SV. Oral contraceptive pills: a risk factor for retinal vascular occlusion in in-vitro fertilization patients. J Hum Reprod Sci. 2013;6(1):79–81.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Thapa R, Paudyal G. Central retinal vein occlusion in young women: rare cases with oral contraceptive pills as a risk factor. Nepal Med Coll J. 2009;11(3):209–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Dheer S, Rekhi GS. Oral contraceptives and central retinal vein occlusion. J Assoc Physicians India. 2001;49:860–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. George MK, Tsai JC, Loewen NA. Bilateral irreversible severe vision loss from cosmetic iris implants. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;151(5):872–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Ruby AJ, Jampol LM. Crohn’s disease and retinal vascular disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110(4):349–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Igarashi H, Yanagawa C, Igarashi S. Crohn’s disease and central retinal vein occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1996;44(2):97–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Yamane Ide S, Reis Rda S, Vieira de Moraes Jr H. Retinal central vein occlusion in remission of Crohn’s disease: case report. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2007;70(6):1034–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Unal A, Sipahioglu MH, Akgun H, Yurci A, Tokgoz B, Erkilic K, et al. Crohn’s disease complicated by granulomatous interstitial nephritis, choroidal neovascularization, and central retinal vein occlusion. Intern Med. 2008;47(2):103–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. VanderVeen DK, Pasquale LR, Fulton AB. Central retinal vein occlusion in a young child with cyanotic heart disease. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(8):1077.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Francis PJ, Stanford MR, Graham EM. Dehydration is a risk factor for central retinal vein occlusion in young patients. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2003;81(4):415–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Rodriguez N, Eliott D. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusion in Eisenmenger syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132(2):268–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Tache JE, Saffra N, Marshak H, Aithal S, Novetsky A, Huang YW. Retinal vein thrombosis as the presenting symptom of essential thrombocythemia. Am J Med Sci. 2005;329(3):139–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Asensio Sánchez VM, Manteca Jiménez G, Cano Navarro E. Essential thrombocythemia and retinal vein thrombosis. Arch Soc Esp Oftalmol. 2004;79(12):629–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Gaudard A, Varlet-Marie E, Monnier JF, Janbon C, Quere I, Bressolle F, et al. Exercise-induced central retinal vein thrombosis: possible involvement of hemorheological disturbances. A case report. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc. 2002;27(2):115–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Fosnot J, Glazer-Hockstein C, Tolentino MJ. Central retinal vein occlusion immediately following cardiac surgery. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2003;34(3):215–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Verma L, Venkatesh P, Tewari HK. Combined central retinal artery and central retinal vein occlusion following pars plana vitrectomy. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1999;30(4):317–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Saatci OA, Ferliel ST, Ferliel M, Kaynak S, Ergin MH. Pseudoexfoliation and glaucoma in eyes with retinal vein occlusion. Int Ophthalmol. 1999;23(2):75–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Cursiefen C, Hammer T, Kuchle M, Naumann GO, Schlotzer-Schrehardt U. Pseudoexfoliation syndrome in eyes with ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. A histopathologic and electron microscopic study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2001;79(5):476–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Gillies WE, Brooks AM. Central retinal vein occlusion in pseudoexfoliation of the lens capsule. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2002;30(3):176–87.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Ritch R, Prata TS, de Moraes CG, Vessani RM, Costa VP, Konstas AG, et al. Association of exfoliation syndrome and central retinal vein occlusion: an ultrastructural analysis. Acta Ophthalmol. 2010;88(1):91–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Tabbara KF, El-Sheikh HF, Vera-Cristo CL. Complications of laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK). Eur J Ophthalmol. 2003;13(2):139–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Kotwal RS, Butler Jr FK, Murray CK, Hill GJ, Rayfield JC, Miles EA. Central retinal vein occlusion in an army ranger with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Mil Med. 2009;174(5):544–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Shah NJ, Shah UN. Central retinal vein occlusion following Sirsasana (headstand posture). Indian J Ophthalmol. 2009;57(1):69–70.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Susicky P, Mach R. Occlusion of the central retinal vein in hemodialyzed patients. Cas Lek Cesk. 1989;128(26):823–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Takizawa Y, Hayashi S, Fujimaki T, Mizota A, Yokoyama T, Tanaka M, et al. Central retinal vein occlusion caused by human herpes virus 6. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2006;43(3):176–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Butler FK, Harris Jr DJ, Reynolds RD. Altitude retinopathy on Mount Everest, 1989. Ophthalmology. 1992;99(5):739–46.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Gupta A, Singh S, Ahluwalia TS, Khanna A. Retinal vein occlusion in high altitude. High Alt Med Biol. 2011;12(4):393–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Cahill M, O’Toole L, Acheson RW. Hormone replacement therapy and retinal vein occlusion. Eye (Lond). 1999;13(Pt 6):798–800.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Rubio Jr JE, Charles S. Interferon-associated combined branch retinal artery and central retinal vein obstruction. Retina. 2003;23(4):546–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Murata M, Tamura Y, Ohsawa M, Hirano T, Matsuo T, Murata T. Central retinal vein occlusion in hypertensive patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with interferon alpha and ribavirin. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2008;52(6):511–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Jenisch T, Dietrich-Ntoukas T, Renner AB, Helbig H, Gamulescu MA. Combined retinal artery and vein occlusions associated with interferon beta therapy. Ophthalmologe. 2012;109(1):71–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Nazir L, Husain A, Haroon W, Shaikh MI, Mirza SA, Khan Z. Interferon-induced central retinal vein thrombosis. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2012;22(11):735–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Rachitskaya AV, Lee RK, Dubovy SR, Schiff ER. Combined central retinal vein and central retinal artery occlusions and neovascular glaucoma associated with interferon treatment. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2012;22(2):284–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Greven CM. Central retinal vein occlusion secondary to an intraocular nematode. Arch Ophthalmol. 2005;123(5):704–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Labiris G, Katsanos A, Karapetsa M, Mpanaka I, Chatzoulis D. Association between isotretinoin use and central retinal vein occlusion in an adolescent with minor predisposition for thrombotic incidents: a case report. J Med Case Reports. 2009;3:58.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Hsieh YT, Yang MT, Peng YJ, Hsu WC. Central retinal vein occlusion as the initial manifestation of LHON/MELAS overlap syndrome with mitochondrial DNA G13513A mutation–case report and literature review. Ophthalmic Genet. 2011;32(1):31–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Hall RC, Clemett RS. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with liquorice ingestion. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2004;32(3):341.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Balogh Z, Berta A, Pfliegler G, Nagy V. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusion caused by malignant hypertension in a young patient. Clin Exp Hypertens. 2011;33(1):53–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Shields JA, Shields CL, Eagle RC, Singh AD, Berrocal MH, Berrocal JA. Central retinal vascular obstruction secondary to melanocytoma of the optic disc. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119(1):129–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Agarwal S, Shanmugam MP, Gopal L, Krishnakumar S, Biswas J. Necrotic melanocytoma of the optic disk with central retinal vascular obstruction. Retina. 2005;25(3):364–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Tagg NT, Lee AG, Syed NA, Golnik KC. Artery, vein, neither, both? Surv Ophthalmol. 2009;54(3):408–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Coppeto JR, Lessell S, Sciarra R, Bear L. Vascular retinopathy in migraine. Neurology. 1986;36(2):267–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Aggio FB, Cariello AJ, Almeida MS, Rodrigues CA, De Moraes NS, Colleoni GW, et al. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusion associated with multiple myeloma. Ophthalmologica. 2004;218(4):283–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Ziaei M, Elgohary MA, Bremner FD. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusion in multiple myeloma. Can J Ophthalmol. 2013;48(2):e24–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Saatci AO, Duzovali O, Ozbek Z, Saatci I, Sarialioglu F. Combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion in a child with systemic non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Int Ophthalmol. 1998;22(2):125–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Lee LC, Howes EL, Bhisitkul RB. Systemic non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma with optic nerve infiltration in a patient with AIDS. Retina. 2002;22(1):75–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Shukla D, Arora A, Hadi KM, Kumar M, Baddela S, Kim R. Combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion secondary to systemic non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2006;54(3):204–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Segev F, Segev A, Livne A, Assia EI, Mekori YA. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusion in a patient with occult colon cancer. Arch Ophthalmol. 2001;119(10):1552–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Gallagher MJ, Clearkin LG. Drug or drusen? Central retinal vein occlusion in a young healthy woman with disc drusen. Eye (Lond). 2000;14(Pt 3a):401–2.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Foroozan R. Combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion from orbital inflammatory pseudotumour. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2004;32(4):435–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Sanchez-Tocino H, Garcia-Layana A, Salinas-Alaman A, Alcalde-Navarrete JM, Panizo-Santos A, Martinez-Monge R. Central retinal vascular occlusion by orbital pseudotumor. Retina. 2004;24(3):455–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Komolafe OO, Ashaye AO. Combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion complicating orbital cellulitis. Niger J Clin Pract. 2008;11(1):74–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Oono S, Okamoto N, Mimura O. A case of idiopathic orbital inflammatory disease with variable ocular manifestations. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 2011;115(2):142–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Bagdonaite L, Jeeva I, Chang BY, Kalantzis G, El-Hindy N. Multidisciplinary management of adult orbital rhabdomyosarcoma. Orbit. 2013;32(3):208–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Pinto LM, Morekar S, Mahashur AA. Central retinal vein occlusion in a patient after being commenced on sildenafil citrate for pulmonary arterial hypertension. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 2009;51(4):249–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Azzouni F, Abusamra K. Are phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors associated with vision-threatening adverse events? A critical analysis and review of the literature. J Sex Med. 2011;8(10):2894–903.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Sbeity ZH, Mansour AM. Recurrent retinal vein occlusion after playing a wind instrument. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2004;242(5):428–31.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Allee SD, Marks SJ. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy with bilateral central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;126(2):309–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Charteris DG, Khanna V, Dhillon B. Acute posterior multifocal placoid pigment epitheliopathy complicated by central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73(9):765–8.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Yakoubi S, Kaibi I, Krifa F, Knani L, Ben Haj Hmida F. Acute multifocal posterior placoid pigment epitheliopathy and central retinal vein occlusion: association in a sarcoidosis patient. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2014;37(6):469–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Shukla D, Mohan KC, Rao N, Kim R, Namperumalsamy P, Cunningham Jr ET. Posterior scleritis causing combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion. Retina. 2004;24(3):467–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Dave VP, Mathai A, Gupta A. Combined anterior and posterior scleritis associated with central retinal vein occlusion: a case report. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect. 2012;2(3):165–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Kamei RW. Posterior scleritis associated with central retinal vein occlusion and cystoid macular edema: case report. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2012;75(5):358–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Gonzalvo FJ, Abecia E, Pinilla I, Izaguirre LB, Olivan JM, Honrubia FM. Central retinal vein occlusion and HELLP syndrome. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000;78(5):596–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Rahman I, Saleemi G, Semple D, Stanga P. Pre-eclampsia resulting in central retinal vein occlusion. Eye (Lond). 2006;20(8):955–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Roos NM, Wiegman MJ, Jansonius NM, Zeeman GG. Visual disturbances in (pre)eclampsia. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2012;67(4):242–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Gabsi S, Rekik R, Gritli N, Naili K, Hassoumi MH. Occlusion of the central retinal vein in a 6-month pregnant woman. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1994;17(5):350–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Bhan A, Rennie IG, Higenbottam TW. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with primary pulmonary hypertension. Retina. 2001;21(1):83–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Fullerton DG, Shrivastava A, Munavvar M, Jain S, Howells J, Macdowall P. Pulmonary tuberculosis presenting with central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(12):1714–5.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Adrean SD, Schwab IR. Central retinal vein occlusion and renal cell carcinoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(6):1185–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Schatz H, Chang LF, Ober RR, McDonald HR, Johnson RN. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with retinal arteriovenous malformation. Ophthalmology. 1993;100(1):24–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Mieler WF, Bennett SR, Platt LW, Koenig SB. Localized retinal detachment with combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion after retrobulbar anesthesia. Retina. 1990;10(4):278–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Giuffre G, Vadala M, Manfre L. Retrobulbar anesthesia complicated by combined central retinal vein and artery occlusion and massive vitreoretinal fibrosis. Retina. 1995;15(5):439–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Torres RJ, Luchini A, Weis W, Frecceiro PR, Casella M. Combined central retinal vein and artery occlusion after retrobulbar anesthesia–report of two cases. Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2005;68(2):257–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Adema AY, ten Kate RW, Plaisier MB. Central retinal vein occlusion as an uncommon complication of sarcoidosis. Neth J Med. 2013;71(3):134–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Leroux les Jardins G, Glacet-Bernard A, Lasry S, Housset B, Coscas G, Soubrane G. Retinal vein occlusion and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2009;32(6):420–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Kanai H, Shiba T, Hori Y, Saishin Y, Maeno T, Takahashi M. Prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing in patients with retinal vein occlusion. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 2012;116(2):81–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Hedreville M, Connes P, Romana M, Magnaval G, David T, Hardy-Dessources MD, et al. Central retinal vein occlusion in a sickle cell trait carrier after a cycling race. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(1):14–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Hasan S, Elbedawi M, Castro O, Gladwin M, Palestine A. Central retinal vein occlusion in sickle cell disease. South Med J. 2004;97(2):202–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Aggermann T, Haas P, Binder S. Central retinal vein occlusion as a possible presenting manifestation of Sneddon syndrome. J Neuroophthalmol. 2007;27(3):240–1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Knapp CM, Sarodia U, Woodruff GH. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with Sturge Weber syndrome. Eye (Lond). 2002;16(5):657–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Browning DJ, Fraser CM. Combined central retinal vein and artery occlusion associated with an isolated superior ophthalmic vein thrombosis. Retina. 2005;25(6):805.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Hamano K, Fujimoto T, Kimura A, Iwano M, Dohi K. Central retinal vein occlusion and cerebellar infarction complicating systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report. Mod Rheumatol. 2001;11(2):151–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Leibovitch I, Goldstein M, Loewenstein A, Barak A. Combined central retinal artery and vein occlusion in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2001;40(10):1195–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Noma H, Shimizu H, Mimura T. Unilateral macular edema with central retinal vein occlusion in systemic lupus erythematosus: a case report. Clin Ophthalmol. 2013;7:865–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Nishiguchi KM, Ito Y, Terasaki H. Bilateral central retinal artery occlusion and vein occlusion complicated by severe choroidopathy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2013;22(7):733–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Primo S. Central retinal vein occlusion in a young patient with seropositive syphilis. J Am Optom Assoc. 1990;61(12):896–902.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Costa JR, Krause M, Friedman E, D’Amico DJ. Central retinal vein occlusion in a patient with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;131(5):669–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Schwartz SG, McPherson AR, Mieler WF, Sessoms SL, Moake JL, Holz ER. Bilateral combined occlusion of the central retinal artery and vein secondary to thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000;118(9):1304–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Mouinga Abayi DA, Giraud JM, Fenolland JR, El Asri F, Sendon D, May F, et al. A rare trauma-associated cause of central retinal vein occlusion in a young subject. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2012;35(6):426–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Noble MJ, Alvarez EV. Combined occlusion of the central retinal artery and central retinal vein following blunt ocular trauma: a case report. Br J Ophthalmol. 1987;71(11):834–6.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Doi M, Nakaseko Y, Uji Y, Fujioka C. Central retinal vein occlusion during remission of ulcerative colitis. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 1999;43(3):213–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. von Eicken J, Inhoffen W, Schneider U. Central vein thrombosis in a young patient. 31 year old patient with unilateral acute impaired vision and a history of ulcerative colitis. Ophthalmologe. 2003;100(9):740–2.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Buchman AL, Babbo AM, Gieser RG. Central retinal vein thrombosis in a patient with ulcerative colitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2006;51(10):1847–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Vayalambrone D, Ivanova T, Misra A. Nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion in an adolescent patient with ulcerative colitis. Case Rep Ophthalmol Med. 2011;2011:963583.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Devin F, Roques G, Disdier P, Rodor F, Weiller PJ. Occlusion of central retinal vein after hepatitis B vaccination. Lancet. 1996;347(9015):1626.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Granel B, Disdier P, Devin F, Swiader L, Riss JM, Coupier L, et al. Occlusion of the central retinal vein after vaccination against viral hepatitis B with recombinant vaccines. 4 cases. Presse Med. 1997;26(2):62–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Berkman N. A case of segmentary unilateral occlusion of the central retinal vein following hepatitis B vaccination. Presse Med. 1997;26(14):670.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Wang M, Khurana RN, Sadda SR. Central retinal vein occlusion in Wegener’s granulomatosis without retinal vasculitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90(11):1435–6.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Nabet L, Dufier JL, Cornu P, Junghers P, Chauvin JC, de Monteynard MS, et al. Bilateral occlusion of the central vein of the retina disclosing Waldenstrom’s disease. Bull Soc Ophtalmol Fr. 1989;89(1):39–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Avashia JH, Fath DF. Bilateral central retinal vein occlusion in Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinemia. J Am Optom Assoc. 1989;60(9):657–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Fadilah SA, Muhaya M, Azlin I. Irreversible visual loss and optic nerve dysfunction associated with central retinal vein occlusion in Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia. Med J Malaysia. 2007;62(4):349–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Alexander P, Flanagan D, Rege K, Foss A, Hingorani M. Bilateral simultaneous central retinal vein occlusion secondary to hyperviscosity in Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinaemia. Eye (Lond). 2008;22(8):1089–92.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Casares PZ, Gillet DS, Verity DH, Rowson NR. Bilateral simultaneous central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO) caused by Waldenstrom’s macroglobulinaemia with acquired von Willebrand’s disease. Br J Haematol. 2002;118(1):344–7.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Hematologic abnormalities associated with various types of retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2002;240(3):180–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman MB. Central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusion: Role of anti-platelet aggregation agents and anticoagulants. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(8):1603–11.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Di Capua M, Coppola A, Albisinni R, Tufano A, Guida A, Di Minno MN, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and outcome in patients with retinal vein occlusion. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2010;30(1):16–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Dong N, Xu B, Tang X. Plasma homocysteine concentrations in acute and convalescent changes of central retinal vein occlusion in a Chinese population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2014;55(7):4057–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Ingerslev J. Thrombophilia: a feature of importance in retinal vein thrombosis? Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 1999;77(6):619–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Faude S, Faude F, Siegemund A, Wiedemann P. Activated protein C resistance in patients with central retinal vein occlusion in comparison to patients with a history of deep-vein thrombosis and a healthy control group. Ophthalmologe. 1999;96(9):594–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Rehak M, Wiedemann P. Retinal vein thrombosis: pathogenesis and management. J Thromb Haemost. 2010;8(9):1886–94.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Verhoeff FH. The effect of chronic glaucoma on central retinal vessels. Arch Ophthalmol. 1913;42:145–52.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Beri M, Podhajsky P. Intraocular pressure abnormalities associated with central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(1):133–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Tielsch JM, Sommer A, Katz J, Royall RM, Quigley HA, Javitt J. Racial variations in the prevalence of primary open-angle glaucoma. The Baltimore Eye Survey. JAMA. 1991;266(3):369–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Leibowitz HM, Krueger DE, Maunder LR, Milton RC, Kini MM, Kahn HA, et al. The Framingham Eye Study monograph: an ophthalmological and epidemiological study of cataract, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, and visual acuity in a general population of 2631 adults, 1973–1975. IV. Glaucoma. Surv Ophthalmol. 1980;24(Suppl):366–400.

    Google Scholar 

  159. Moore RF. Some observations on the intra-ocular tension in cases of thrombosis of the retinal veins. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1922;42:115–26.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Vannas S, Raitta C. Intraocular hypotony vs hypertony after central retinal vein occlusion: a long term follow up of 95 patients. Ann Ophthalmol. 1970;2(2):213–7.

    Google Scholar 

  161. Cappin JM, Whitelocke R. The iris in central retinal vein thrombosis. Proc R Soc Med. 1974;67(10):1048–51.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Hayreh SS, March W, Phelps CD. Ocular hypotony following retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96(5):827–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Virdi PS, Hayreh SS. Ocular neovascularization with retinal vascular occlusion. I Association with experimental retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1982;100(2):331–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Duke-Elder S. Textbook of ophthalmology, vol. 3. London: Kimpton; 1940. p. 2584–5.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Bertelsen T. The relationship between thrombosis in the retinal veins and primary glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1961;39:603–13.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Linnėr E. Discussion of “Bertelsen, the relationship between thrombosis in the retinal veins and primary glaucoma”. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1961;39:611–2.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Igersheimer J. Intraocular pressure and its relation to retinal extravasation. Arch Ophthalmol. 1944;32(1):50–5.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Feron A, Weekers R. Determination of the coefficient of rate of flow of the aqueous humor by means of tonography and of the “suction cup” in diabetics. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1961;39:308–11.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Jain IS, Luthra CL. Diabetic retinopathy. Its relationship with intraocular pressure. Arch Ophthalmol. 1967;78(2):198–200.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Becker B. Diabetes mellitus and primary open-angle glaucoma. The XXVII Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;71(1 Pt 1):1–16.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Hayreh SS. Blood flow in the optic nerve head and factors that may influence it. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2001;20(5):595–624.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Kass MA, Heuer DK, Higginbotham EJ, Johnson CA, Keltner JL, Miller JP, et al. The Ocular Hypertension Treatment Study: a randomized trial determines that topical ocular hypotensive medication delays or prevents the onset of primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch Ophthalmol. 2002;120(6):701–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Hayreh SS. So-called “central retinal vein occlusion”. I. Pathogenesis, terminology, clinical features. Ophthalmologica. 1976;172(1):1–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Hayreh SS, van Heuven WA, Hayreh MS. Experimental retinal vascular occlusion. I. Pathogenesis of central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1978;96(2):311–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Hayreh SS. Central retinal vein occlusion. In: Mausolf FA, editor. The eye and systemic disease. 2nd ed. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby; 1980. p. 223–75.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Hayreh SS. Classification of central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1983;90(5):458–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Hayreh SS. Central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 1998;11(4):559–90.

    Google Scholar 

  178. Juarez CP, Tso MO, van Heuven WA, Hayreh MS, Hayreh SS. Experimental retinal vascular occlusion. II. A clinico-pathologic correlative study of simultaneous occlusion of central retinal vein and artery. Int Ophthalmol. 1986;9(2–3):77–87.

    Google Scholar 

  179. Juarez CP, Tso MO, van Heuven WA, Hayreh MS, Hayreh SS. Experimental retinal vascular occlusion. III. An ultrastructural study of simultaneous occlusion of central retinal vein and artery. Int Ophthalmol. 1986;9(2–3):89–101.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman MB. Natural history of visual outcome in central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(1):119–33.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Hayreh SS, Joos KM, Podhajsky PA, Long CR. Systemic diseases associated with nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;118(6):766–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Incidence of various types of retinal vein occlusion and their recurrence and demographic characteristics. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;117(4):429–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Verhoeff FH. Obstruction of the central retinal vein. Arch Ophthalmol. 1907;36(1):1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  184. Hockley DJ, Tripathi RC, Ashton N. Experimental retinal branch vein occlusion in the monkey. Histopathological and ultrastructural studies. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1976;96(2):202–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Green WR, Chan CC, Hutchins GM, Terry JM. Central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective histopathologic study of 29 eyes in 28 cases. 1981. Retina. 2005;25(5 Suppl):27–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Williamson TH. A “throttle” mechanism in the central retinal vein in the region of the lamina cribrosa. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(9):1190–3.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Kang MH, Balaratnasingam C, Yu PK, Morgan WH, McAllister IL, Cringle SJ, et al. Morphometric characteristics of central retinal artery and vein endothelium in the normal human optic nerve head. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52(3):1359–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Hayreh SS, Pe’er J, Zimmerman MB. Morphologic changes in chronic high-pressure experimental glaucoma in rhesus monkeys. J Glaucoma. 1999;8(1):56–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Klien BA, Olwin JH. A survey of the pathogenesis of retinal venous occlusion, emphasis upon choice of therapy and an analysis of the therapeutic results in fifty-three patients. AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1956;56(2):207–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Jensen VA. Clinical studies of tributary thrombosis in central retinal vein. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1936;10:1–193.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Svensson PJ, Dahlback B. Resistance to activated protein C as a basis for venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 1994;330(8):517–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P, Alward WLM. Nocturnal arterial hypotension and its role in optic nerve head and ocular ischemic disorders. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;117(5):603–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Hayreh SS, Podhajsky P, Zimmerman MB. Role of nocturnal arterial hypotension in optic nerve head ischemic disorders. Ophthalmologica. 1999;213(2):76–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB. Fundus changes in central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2015;35:29–42.

    Google Scholar 

  195. Tilleul J, Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G, Soubrane G, Souied EH. Underlying conditions associated with the occurrence of retinal vein occlusion. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2011;34(5):318–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB. Amaurosis fugax in ocular vascular occlusive disorders: prevalence and pathogeneses. Retina. 2014;34(1):115–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Lonn LI, Hoyt WF. Papillophlebitis: a cause of protracted yet benign optic disc edema. Eye Ear Nose Throat Mon. 1966;45(10):62–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Hart CD, Sanders MD, Miller SJ. Benign retinal vasculitis. Clinical and fluorescein angiographic study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1971;55(11):721–33.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Hart CD, Sanders MD, Miller SJH. Retinal and papillary vasculitis. In: Cant JS, editor. Proceedings, William MacKenzie Centenary Symposium on the ocular circulation in health and disease (1968: Glasgow). London: Kimpton; 1969. p. 249–70.

    Google Scholar 

  200. Hayreh SS. Optic disc vasculitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1972;56(9):652–70.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Servais GE, Thompson HS, Hayreh SS. Relative afferent pupillary defect in central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1986;93(3):301–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Hayreh SS, Klugman MR, Podhajsky P, Kolder HE. Electroretinography in central retinal vein occlusion. Correlation of electroretinographic changes with pupillary abnormalities. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1989;227(6):549–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Magargal LE, Donoso LA, Sanborn GE. Retinal ischemia and risk of neovascularization following central retinal vein obstruction. Ophthalmology. 1982;89(11):1241–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Welch JC, Augsburger JJ. Assessment of angiographic retinal capillary nonperfusion in central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1987;103(6):761–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Johnson MA, Marcus S, Elman MJ, McPhee TJ. Neovascularization in central retinal vein occlusion: electroretinographic findings. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106(3):348–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB. Ocular neovascularization associated with central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2012;32(8):1553–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. A randomized clinical trial of early panretinal photocoagulation for ischemic central vein occlusion. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group N report. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(10):1434–44.

    Google Scholar 

  208. Weiss JN, Bynoe LA. Injection of tissue plasminogen activator into a branch retinal vein in eyes with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2001;108(12):2249–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Opremcak EM, Bruce RA, Lomeo MD, Ridenour CD, Letson AD, Rehmar AJ. Radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion: a retrospective pilot study of 11 consecutive cases. Retina. 2001;21(5):408–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. García-Arumíi J, Boixadera A, Martinez-Castillo V, Castillo R, Dou A, Corcostegui B. Chorioretinal anastomosis after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(10):1385–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  211. Hayreh SS. Prevalent misconceptions about acute retinal vascular occlusive disorders. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2005;24(4):493–519.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Williamson TH. Central retinal vein occlusion: what’s the story? Br J Ophthalmol. 1997;81(8):698–704.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Lavin MJ, Dhillon BJ. Cyclic variation in onset of central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1987;71(1):18–20.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Peduzzi M, Debbia A, Guerrieri F, Torlai F, DeFranceso G. Seasonal variations in incidence of retinal vein occlusion [poster, abstract]. Program of Club Jules Gonin XVI Meeting, Bruges, 4–8 Sept 1988, p. 142.

    Google Scholar 

  215. Ho JD, Tsai CY, Liou SW, Tsai RJ, Lin HC. Seasonal variations in the occurrence of retinal vein occlusion: a five-year nationwide population-based study from Taiwan. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145(4):722–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P. Seasonal variations in the onset of retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1992;76(12):706–10.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Bull GM. Meteorological correlates with myocardial and cerebral infarction and respiratory disease. Br J Prev Soc Med. 1973;27(2):108–13.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Bull GM, Morton J. Environment, temperature and death rates. Age Ageing. 1978;7(4):210–24.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Bull GM, Brozovic M, Chakrabarti R, Meade TW, Morton J, North WR, et al. Relationship of air temperature to various chemical, haematological, and haemostatic variables. J Clin Pathol. 1979;32(1):16–20.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Clark CV. Seasonal variation in incidence of brachial and femoral emboli. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1983;287(6399):1109.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Fersini C, Manfredini R, Manfredini F, Balboni G, Fersini G. Chronobiologic aspects of recurrent transient ischemic attack. Prog Clin Biol Res. 1987;227B:167–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Stout RW, Crawford V. Seasonal variations in fibrinogen concentrations among elderly people. Lancet. 1991;338(8758):9–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. McKee CM. Deaths in winter: can Britain learn from Europe? Eur J Epidemiol. 1989;5(2):178–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Keatinge WR. Seasonal mortality among elderly people with unrestricted home heating. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1986;293(6549):732–3.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Keatinge WR, Coleshaw SR, Holmes J. Changes in seasonal mortalities with improvement in home heating in England and Wales from 1964 to 1984. Int J Biometeorol. 1989;33(2):71–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Hayreh SS, Weingeist TA. Experimental occlusion of the central artery of the retina. I. Ophthalmoscopic and fluorescein fundus angiographic studies. Br J Ophthalmol. 1980;64(12):896–912.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Kimura A, Sanon A. Central retinal artery occlusion. Retinal survival time. Exp Eye Res. 2004;78(3):723–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB. Central retinal artery occlusion: visual outcome. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140(3):376–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Michel J. Concerning the anatomical causes of changes of the fundus in some systemic diseases. Dtsch Arch Klin Med. 1878;22:339–45.

    Google Scholar 

  230. Moore RF. Retinal venous thrombosis: a clinical study of sixty-two cases followed over many years. London: Pulman; 1924. p. 1–90. British Journal of Ophthalmology Monograph supplement 2.

    Google Scholar 

  231. Zegarra H, Gutman FA, Conforto J. The natural course of central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1979;86(11):1931–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Quinlan PM, Elman MJ, Bhatt AK, Mardesich P, Enger C. The natural course of central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110(2):118–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Chen JC, Klein ML, Watzke RC, Handelman IL, Robertson JE. Natural course of perfused central retinal vein occlusion. Can J Ophthalmol. 1995;30(1):21–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  234. Priluck IA, Robertson DM, Hollenhorst RW. Long-term follow-up of occlusion of the central retinal vein in young adults. Am J Ophthalmol. 1980;90(2):190–202.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Fong ACO, Schatz H, McDonald HR, Burton TC, Maberley AL, Joffe L, et al. Central retinal vein occlusion in young-adults (papillophlebitis). Retina. 1992;12(1):3–11.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Giuffré G, Randazzo-Papa G, Palumbo C. Central retinal vein occlusion in young people. Doc Ophthalmol. 1992;80(2):127–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. Natural history and clinical management of central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1997;115(4):486–91.

    Google Scholar 

  238. Baseline and early natural history report. The Central Vein Occlusion Study. Arch Ophthalmol. 1993;111(8):1087–95.

    Google Scholar 

  239. Score Study Research Group, Ip MS, Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, Oden NL, Blodi BA, et al. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with observation to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: the Standard Care vs Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) study report 5. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127(9):1101–14.

    Google Scholar 

  240. Glacet-Bernard A, Coscas G, Chabanel A, Zourdani A, Lelong F, Samama MM. Prognostic factors for retinal vein occlusion: prospective study of 175 cases. Ophthalmology. 1996;103(4):551–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Giuffré G, Palumbo C, Randazzo-Papa G. Optociliary veins and central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1993;77(12):774–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Green WR, Chan CC, Hutchins GM, Terry JM. Central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective histopathologic study of 29 eyes in 28 cases. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1981;79:371–422.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Foss AJ, Headon MP, Hamilton AM, Lightman S. Transient vessel wall sheathing in acute retinal vein occlusions. Eye (Lond). 1992;6(Pt 3):313–6.

    Google Scholar 

  244. Paques M, Gaudric A. Perivenular macular whitening during acute central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2003;121(10):1488–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Reyes ME, Barr CC, Gamel JW. Blood levels in macular cystoid spaces and their relationship to retinal vein obstruction. Retina. 1994;14(1):14–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. McIntosh RL, Rogers SL, Lim L, Cheung N, Wang JJ, Mitchell P, et al. Natural history of central retinal vein occlusion: an evidence-based systematic review. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(6):1113–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Paques M, Massin P, Sahel JA, Gaudric A, Bergmann JF, Azancot S, et al. Circadian fluctuations of macular edema in patients with morning vision blurring: correlation with arterial pressure and effect of light deprivation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(12):4707–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Gupta B, Grewal J, Adewoyin T, Pelosini L, Williamson TH. Diurnal variation of macular oedema in CRVO: prospective study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247(5):593–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky PA. Retinal vein occlusion and the optic disk. Retina. 2012;32(10):2108–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Takahashi K, Muraoka K, Kishi S, Shimizu K. Formation of retinochoroidal collaterals in central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;126(1):91–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Oosterhuis JA. Fluorescein fundus angiography in retinal venous occlusion. In: Henkes HE, editor. Perspectives in ophthalmology. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1968. p. 29–47.

    Google Scholar 

  252. Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of occlusion of the central retinal vessels. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;72(5):998–1011.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. McLeod D. Cilio-retinal arterial circulation in central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1975;59(9):486–92.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  254. McLeod D, Ring CP. Cilio-retinal infarction after retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 1976;60(Pt. 6):419–27.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Glacet-Bernard A, Gaudric A, Touboul C, Coscas G. Occlusion of the central retinal vein with occlusion of a cilioretinal artery: apropos of 7 cases. J Fr Ophtalmol. 1987;10(4):269–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Schatz H, Fong AC, McDonald HR, Johnson RN, Joffe L, Wilkinson CP, et al. Cilioretinal artery occlusion in young adults with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1991;98(5):594–601.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Brazitikos PD, Pournaras CJ, Baumgartner A. Occlusion of a cilioretinal artery associated with occlusion of the central retinal vein. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 1991;198(5):374–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  258. Keyser BJ, Duker JS, Brown GC, Sergott RC, Bosley TM. Combined central retinal vein occlusion and cilioretinal artery occlusion associated with prolonged retinal arterial filling. Am J Ophthalmol. 1994;117(3):308–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Browning DJ. Patchy ischemic retinal whitening in acute central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(11):2154–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  260. Hayreh SS, Fraterrigo L, Jonas J. Central retinal vein occlusion associated with cilioretinal artery occlusion. Retina. 2008;28(4):581–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  261. Hayreh SS. Surgical embolus removal in retinal artery occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91(8):1096–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  262. Hayreh SS. The cilio-retinal arteries. Br J Ophthalmol. 1963;47:71–89.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  263. Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of visual field defects: role of the ciliary circulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;54(5):289–311.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Hayreh SS, Revie IH, Edwards J. Vasogenic origin of visual field defects and optic nerve changes in glaucoma. Br J Ophthalmol. 1970;54(7):461–72.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  265. Blumenthal M, Best M, Galin MA, Gitter KA. Ocular circulation: analysis of the effect of induced ocular hypertension on retinal and choroidal blood flow in man. Am J Ophthalmol. 1971;71(4):819–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Hayreh SS. Blood supply of the optic nerve head and its role in optic atrophy, glaucoma, and oedema of the optic disc. Br J Ophthalmol. 1969;53(11):721–48.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Hayreh SS. The blood supply of the optic nerve head and the evaluation of it: myth and reality. Prog Retin Eye Res. 2001;20(5):563–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  268. Hayreh SS, Jonas JB. Optic disk and retinal nerve fiber layer damage after transient central retinal artery occlusion: an experimental study in rhesus monkeys. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;129(6):786–95.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  269. McLeod D. Central retinal vein occlusion with cilioretinal infarction from branch flow exclusion and choroidal arterial steal. Retina. 2009;29(10):1381–95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  270. Coats G. Further cases of thrombosis of the central vein. Roy Lond Ophthal Hosp Rep. 1906;16:516–64.

    Google Scholar 

  271. Smith R. Thrombotic glaucoma: a clinicopathological study. Acta XVII Concilium Ophthalmologicum (17th International Congress of Ophthalmology, Toronto, Canada, 1954), vol. II. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 1955. p. 1164–75.

    Google Scholar 

  272. Hayreh SS, Rojas P, Podhajsky P, Montague P, Woolson RF. Ocular neovascularization with retinal vascular occlusion-III. Incidence of ocular neovascularization with retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1983;90(5):488–506.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Browning DJ, Scott AQ, Peterson CB, Warnock J, Zhang Z. The risk of missing angle neovascularization by omitting screening gonioscopy in acute central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1998;105(5):776–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. Recchia FM, Carvalho-Recchia CA, Hassan TS. Clinical course of younger patients with central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122(3):317–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Chan CK, Ip MS, Vanveldhuisen PC, Oden NL, Scott IU, Tolentino MJ, et al. SCORE Study report #11: incidences of neovascular events in eyes with retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(7):1364–72.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  276. Adamis AP, Shima DT, Tolentino MJ, Gragoudas ES, Ferrara N, Folkman J, et al. Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor prevents retinal ischemia-associated iris neovascularization in a nonhuman primate. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114(1):66–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  277. Varma R, Bressler NM, Suner I, Lee P, Dolan CM, Ward J, et al. Improved vision-related function after ranibizumab for macular edema after retinal vein occlusion: results from the BRAVO and CRUISE trials. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(10):2108–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  278. Boyer D, Heier J, Brown DM, Clark WL, Vitti R, Berliner AJ, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor Trap-Eye for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: six-month results of the phase 3 COPERNICUS study. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(5):1024–32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  279. Brown DM, Heier JS, Clark WL, Boyer DS, Vitti R, Berliner AJ, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept injection for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: 1-year results from the phase 3 COPERNICUS study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2013;155(3):429–37.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  280. Heier JS, Clark WL, Boyer DS, Brown DM, Vitti R, Berliner AJ, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept injection for macular edema due to central retinal vein occlusion: two-year results from the COPERNICUS study. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(7):1414–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  281. Holz FG, Roider J, Ogura Y, Korobelnik JF, Simader C, Groetzbach G, et al. VEGF Trap-Eye for macular oedema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: 6-month results of the phase III GALILEO study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013;97(3):278–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  282. Korobelnik JF, Holz FG, Roider J, Ogura Y, Simader C, Schmidt-Erfurth U, et al. Intravitreal aflibercept injection for macular edema resulting from central retinal vein occlusion: one-year results of the phase 3 GALILEO study. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(1):202–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  283. Campochiaro PA, Sophie R, Pearlman J, Brown DM, Boyer DS, Heier JS, et al. Long-term outcomes in patients with retinal vein occlusion treated with ranibizumab: the RETAIN study. Ophthalmology. 2014;121(1):209–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Brown DM, Wykoff CC, Wong TP, Mariani AF, Croft DE, Schuetzle KL, et al. Ranibizumab in preproliferative (ISCHEMIC) central retinal vein occlusion: the rubeosis anti-VEGF (RAVE) trial. Retina. 2014;34(9):1728–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Braithwaite T, Nanji AA, Lindsley K, Greenberg PB. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor for macular oedema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;5, CD007325.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  286. Sophie R, Hafiz G, Scott AW, Zimmer-Galler I, Nguyen QD, Ying H, et al. Long-term outcomes in ranibizumab-treated patients with retinal vein occlusion; the role of progression of retinal nonperfusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2013;156(4):693–705.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  287. Brynskov T, Kemp H, Sorensen TL. Intravitreal ranibizumab for retinal vein occlusion through 1 year in clinical practice. Retina. 2014;34(8):1637–43.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  288. Wu L, Martinez-Castellanos MA, Quiroz-Mercado H, Arevalo JF, Berrocal MH, Farah ME, et al. Twelve-month safety of intravitreal injections of bevacizumab (Avastin): results of the Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group (PACORES). Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246(1):81–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  289. Spaide RF, Chang LK, Klancnik JM, Yannuzzi LA, Sorenson J, Slakter JS, et al. Prospective study of intravitreal ranibizumab as a treatment for decreased visual acuity secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(2):298–306.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  290. Chuang LH, Wu WC, Yeung L, Wang NK, Hwang YS, Chen KJ, et al. Serum concentration of bevacizumab after intravitreal injection in experimental branch retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Res. 2011;45(1):31–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  291. Wu Z, Sadda SR. Effects on the contralateral eye after intravitreal bevacizumab and ranibizumab injections: a case report. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2008;37(7):591–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. Wu L, Arevalo JF, Berrocal MH, Maia M, Roca JA, Morales-Canton V, et al. Comparison of two doses of intravitreal bevacizumab as primary treatment for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: results of the pan American collaborative retina study group at 24 months. Retina. 2010;30(7):1002–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Bakri SJ, McCannel CA, Edwards AO, Moshfeghi DM. Persistent ocular hypertension following intravitreal ranibizumab. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2008;246(7):955–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Kahook MY, Kimura AE, Wong LJ, Ammar DA, Maycotte MA, Mandava N. Sustained elevation in intraocular pressure associated with intravitreal bevacizumab injections. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2009;40(3):293–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Jalil A, Fenerty C, Charles S. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) causing acute glaucoma: an unreported complication. Eye. 2007;21(12):1541.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Tseng JJ, Vance SK, Della Torre KE, Mendonca LS, Cooney MJ, Klancnik JM, et al. Sustained increased intraocular pressure related to intravitreal antivascular endothelial growth factor therapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. J Glaucoma. 2012;21(4):241–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  297. Abedi G, Adelman RA, Salim S. Incidence and management of elevated intraocular pressure with antivascular endothelial growth factor agents. Semin Ophthalmol. 2013;28(3):126–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Yannuzzi NA, Patel SN, Bhavsar KV, Sugiguchi F, Freund KB. Predictors of sustained intraocular pressure elevation in eyes receiving intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2014;158(2):319–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  299. Hosseini H, Razeghinejad MR. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy after intravitreal injection of bevacizumab. J Neuroophthalmol. 2009;29(2):160–1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  300. Ganssauge M, Wilhelm H, Bartz-Schmidt KU, Aisenbrey S. Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NA-AION) after intravitreal injection of bevacizumab (Avastin) for treatment of angoid streaks in pseudoxanthoma elasticum. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2009;247(12):1707–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Furino C, Boscia F, Cardascia N, Alessio G, Sborgia C. Hemorrhagic macular infarction after intravitreal bevacizumab for central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2010:1–2, doi:10.3928/15428877-20100215-57.

  302. Leung LS, Silva RA, Blumenkranz MS, Flynn Jr HW, Sanislo SR. Macular infarction following intravitreal bevacizumab for treatment of central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2012;43 Online:e73–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  303. Shimura M, Yasuda K. Macular ischaemia after intravitreal bevacizumab injection in patients with central retinal vein occlusion and a history of diabetes and vascular disease. Br J Ophthalmol. 2010;94(3):381–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  304. Georgalas I, Rouvas A, Kotsolis A, Karagiannis D, Ladas I. Full thickness macular hole formation in a patient with cystoid macular edema caused by CRVO treated with intravitreal bevacizicumab. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2010:1–4, doi:10.3928/15428877-20100215-31.

  305. Kim NR, Chin HS. Progression of impending central retinal vein occlusion to the ischemic variant following intravitreal bevacizumab. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2010;24(3):179–81.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Alkawas AA, Shahien EA, Hussein AM. Management of neovascular glaucoma with panretinal photocoagulation, intravitreal bevacizumab, and subsequent trabeculectomy with mitomycin C. J Glaucoma. 2010;19(9):622–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide: a change in a paradigm. Ophthalmic Res. 2006;38(4):218–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  308. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of intraocular oedematous and neovascular diseases. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83(6):645–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  309. Douat J, Auriol S, Mahieu-Durringer L, Ancele E, Pagot-Mathis V, Mathis A. Intravitreal bevacizumab for treatment of neovascular glaucoma. Report of 20 cases. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2009;32(9):652–63.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  310. Gupta V, Jha R, Rao A, Kong G, Sihota R. The effect of different doses of intracameral bevacizumab on surgical outcomes of trabeculectomy for neovascular glaucoma. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2009;19(3):435–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  311. Hasanreisoglu M, Weinberger D, Mimouni K, Luski M, Bourla D, Kramer M, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab as an adjunct treatment for neovascular glaucoma. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2009;19(4):607–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  312. Batioğlu F, Astam N, Ozmert E. Rapid improvement of retinal and iris neovascularization after a single intravitreal bevacizumab injection in a patient with central retinal vein occlusion and neovascular glaucoma. Int Ophthalmol. 2008;28(1):59–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  313. Ip MS, Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, Oden NL, Blodi BA, Fisher M, et al. A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with observation to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: the Standard Care vs Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) study report 5. Arch Ophthalmol. 2009;127(9):1101–14.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  314. Haller JA, Bandello F, Belfort Jr R, Blumenkranz MS, Gillies M, Heier J, Ozurdex Geneva Study Group, et al. Randomized, sham-controlled trial of dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(6):1134–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  315. Haller JA, Bandello F, Belfort Jr R, Blumenkranz MS, Gillies M, Heier J, Ozurdex Geneva Study Group, et al. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with macular edema related to branch or central retinal vein occlusion twelve-month study results. Ophthalmology. 2011;118(12):2453–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  316. Bezatis A, Spital G, Hohn F, Maier M, Clemens CR, Wachtlin J, et al. Functional and anatomical results after a single intravitreal Ozurdex injection in retinal vein occlusion: a 6-month follow-up: the SOLO study. Acta Ophthalmol. 2013;91(5):e340–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  317. Capone Jr A, Singer MA, Dodwell DG, Dreyer RF, Oh KT, Roth DB, et al. Efficacy and safety of two or more dexamethasone intravitreal implant injections for treatment of macular edema related to retinal vein occlusion (Shasta study). Retina. 2014;34(2):342–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  318. Yeh WS, Haller JA, Lanzetta P, Kuppermann BD, Wong TY, Mitchell P, et al. Effect of the duration of macular edema on clinical outcomes in retinal vein occlusion treated with dexamethasone intravitreal implant. Ophthalmology. 2012;119(6):1190–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  319. Jin ZY, Zhu D, Tao Y, Wong IY, Jonas JB. Meta-analysis of the effect of intravitreal bevacizumab versus intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in central retinal vein occlusion. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2013;29(9):826–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  320. Aggermann T, Stolba U, Brunner S, Binder S. Endophthalmitis with retinal necrosis following intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injection. Ophthalmologica. 2006;220(2):131–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  321. Hirasawa M, Noda K, Shinoda H, Ozawa Y, Tsubota K, Ishida S. Secondary macular hole associated with central retinal vein occlusion treated with corticosteroid injection. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2009;53(3):279–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  322. Holmin N, Plomin KG. Thrombosis of central vein of retina treated with heparin. Lancet. 1938;231(5977):664–5.

    Google Scholar 

  323. Huggett AS, Juler FA. Heparin in thrombosis of the central vein of the retina. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1942;62:123–34.

    Google Scholar 

  324. Odqvist B. The prognosis for thrombosis of the retinal veins without treatment with heparin. Nord Med. 1942;16:3349–50.

    Google Scholar 

  325. Rosengren B, Stenstrom S. 30 Faile von Venenthrombose der Netzhaut, behandelt mit Heparin. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1942;20:145–52.

    Google Scholar 

  326. Klein BA. Anticoagulant therapy of occlusion of central vein of retina: in relation to pathogenesis and differential diagnosis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1942;29(5):699–710.

    Google Scholar 

  327. Blum J-D, Jeanneret H. Treatment of retinal vein thrombosis by a new anticoagulant: dicoumarol. Ophthalmologica. 1944;108:129–36.

    Google Scholar 

  328. Ploman KG. Treatment of thrombosis of the veins of the retina with heparin. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1944;21:190–203.

    Google Scholar 

  329. McLean A, Brambel CE. Dicumarol and rutin in retinal vascular disease. Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K. 1944;44:194–213.

    Google Scholar 

  330. Banks-Smith RG. Case of partial thrombosis of central retinal vein treated by dicoumarin. Trans Ophthalmol Soc Aust. 1947;7:103–5.

    Google Scholar 

  331. Rosengren B. The value of anti-coagulators in the treatment of retinal thrombosis. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1948;26:275–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  332. Benedict WL. The clinical significance of closure of the retinal vessels. J Med Assoc Ga. 1949;38:423–33.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  333. Braendstrup P. Central retinal vein thrombosis and hemorrhagic glaucoma. Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1950;35:7–162.

    Google Scholar 

  334. Larsson S, Nord B. Some remarks on retinal vein thrombosis and its treatment with anticoagulants. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1950;28(2):187–201.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  335. Duff IF, Falls HF, Linman JW. Anticoagulant therapy in occlusive vascular disease of the retina. AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1951;46(6):601–17.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  336. Cassady JV. Central retinal vein thrombosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1953;36(3):331–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  337. Vannas S, Orma H. Experience of treating retinal venous occlusion with anticoagulant and antisclerosis therapy. AMA Arch Ophthalmol. 1957;58(6):812–28.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  338. van Loon J. The causes and therapy of thrombosis of the retinal veins. Ophthalmologica. 1961;141:467–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  339. Meythaler H. On the occlusions of retinal vessels. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 1966;149(1):32–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  340. Vannas S, Raitta C. Anticoagulant treatment of retinal venous occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1966;62(5):874–84.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  341. Sedney SC. Photocoagulation in retinal vein occlusion. The Hague: W. Junk; 1975. p. 21–7. 80–100.

    Google Scholar 

  342. Ageno W, Cattaneo R, Manfredi E, Chelazzi P, Venco L, Ghirarduzzi A, et al. Parnaparin versus aspirin in the treatment of retinal vein occlusion. A randomized, double blind, controlled study. Thromb Res. 2010;125(2):137–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  343. Koizumi H, Ferrara DC, Brue C, Spaide RF. Central retinal vein occlusion case-control study. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;144(6):858–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  344. Hayreh SS. Venous occlusive disease: management 25 years ago. Retina. 2006;26(6 Suppl):S51–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  345. Hansen LL, Wiek J, Wiederholt M. A randomised prospective study of treatment of non-ischaemic central retinal vein occlusion by isovolaemic haemodilution. Br J Ophthalmol. 1989;73(11):895–9.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  346. Wolf S, Arend O, Bertram B, Remky A, Schulte K, Wald KJ, et al. Hemodilution therapy in central retinal vein occlusion. One-year results of a prospective randomized study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1994;232(1):33–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  347. Glacet-Bernard A, Zourdani A, Milhoub M, Maraqua N, Coscas G, Soubrane G. Effect of isovolemic hemodilution in central retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001;239(12):909–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  348. Glacet-Bernard A, Atassi M, Fardeau C, Romanet JP, Tonini M, Conrath J, et al. Hemodilution therapy using automated erythrocytapheresis in central retinal vein occlusion: results of a multicenter randomized controlled study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2011;249(4):505–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  349. Hansen LL, Danisevskis P, Arntz HR, Hovener G, Wiederholt M. A randomised prospective study on treatment of central retinal vein occlusion by isovolaemic haemodilution and photocoagulation. Br J Ophthalmol. 1985;69(2):108–16.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  350. Hattenbach LO, Wellermann G, Steinkamp GW, Scharrer I, Koch FH, Ohrloff C. Visual outcome after treatment with low-dose recombinant tissue plasminogen activator or hemodilution in ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmologica. 1999;213(6):360–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  351. Kohner EM, Laatikainen L, Oughton J. The management of central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1983;90(5):484–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  352. Luckie AP, Wroblewski JJ, Hamilton P, Bird AC, Sanders M, Slater N, et al. A randomised prospective study of outpatient haemodilution for central retinal vein obstruction. Aust N Z J Ophthalmol. 1996;24(3):223–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  353. Wiek J, Schade M, Wiederholt M, Arntz HR, Hansen LL. Haemorheological changes in patients with retinal vein occlusion after isovolaemic haemodilution. Br J Ophthalmol. 1990;74(11):665–9.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  354. Packer AJ, Tse DT, Gu XQ, Hayreh SS. Hematoporphyrin photoradiation therapy for iris neovascularization. A preliminary report. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984;102(8):1193–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  355. Parodi MB, Iacono P, Ravalico G. Verteporfin photodynamic therapy for anterior segment neovascularization secondary to ischaemic central retinal vein occlusion. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2008;36(3):232–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  356. Roy M, Bartow W, Ambrus J, Fauci A, Collier B, Titus J. Retinal leakage in retinal vein occlusion: reduction after hyperbaric oxygen. Ophthalmologica. 1989;198(2):78–83.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  357. Johnson GP. Cases from the aerospace medicine residents’ teaching file. Case #38. A navigator with nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion progressing to ischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1990;61(10):962–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  358. Wright JK, Franklin B, Zant E. Clinical case report: treatment of a central retinal vein occlusion with hyperbaric oxygen. Undersea Hyperb Med. 2007;34(5):315–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  359. Dodds EM, Lowder CY, Foster RE. Plasmapheresis treatment of central retinal vein occlusion in a young adult. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995;119(4):519–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  360. Lahey JM, Fong DS, Kearney J. Intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator for acute central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1999;30(6):427–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  361. Paques M, Vallee JN, Herbreteau D, Aymart A, Santiago PY, Campinchi-Tardy F, et al. Superselective ophthalmic artery fibrinolytic therapy for the treatment of central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(12):1387–91.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  362. Hattenbach LO, Friedrich Arndt C, Lerche R, Scharrer I, Baatz H, Margaron F, et al. Retinal vein occlusion and low-dose fibrinolytic therapy (R.O.L.F.): a prospective, randomized, controlled multicenter study of low-dose recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus hemodilution in retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2009;29(7):932–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  363. Reim M, Bertram B, Wolf S. Treatment trials of plasminogen activator (rt-PA) in central vein thrombosis of the retina. Klin Wochenschr. 1988;66 Suppl 12:143–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  364. Glacet-Bernard A, Kuhn D, Vine AK, Oubraham H, Coscas G, Soubrane G. Treatment of recent onset central retinal vein occlusion with intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator: a pilot study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2000;84(6):609–13.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  365. Hayreh SS, Klugman MR, Podhajsky P, Servais GE, Perkins ES. Argon laser pan-retinal photocoagulation in ischemic central retinal vein occlusion: a 10-year prospective study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 1990;228:281–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  366. Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group. Argon laser scatter photocoagulation for prevention of neovascularization and vitreous hemorrhage in branch vein occlusion: a randomized clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol. 1986;104(1):34–41.

    Google Scholar 

  367. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group. Evaluation of grid pattern photocoagulation for macular edema in central vein occlusion. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group M report. Ophthalmology. 1995;102(10):1425–33.

    Google Scholar 

  368. Magargal LE, Brown GC, Augsburger JJ, Donoso LA. Efficacy of panretinal photocoagulation in preventing neovascular glaucoma following ischemic central retinal vein obstruction. Ophthalmology. 1982;89(7):780–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  369. Magargal LE, Brown GC, Augsburger JJ, Parrish 2nd RK. Neovascular glaucoma following central retinal vein obstruction. Ophthalmology. 1981;88(11):1095–101.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  370. Laatikainen L, Kohner EM, Khoury D, Blach RK. Panretinal photocoagulation in central retinal vein occlusion: a randomised controlled clinical study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1977;61(12):741–53.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  371. Hayreh SS. The CVOS group M and N reports [letter]. Ophthalmology. 1996;103(3):350–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  372. Clarkson JG, Coscas G, Finkelstein D, Gutman FAQ, Hillis A, Klein MI, et al. The CVOS Group M and N reports [reply]. Ophthalmol Eye Dis. 1996;103:353–4.

    Google Scholar 

  373. McAllister IL, Constable IJ. Laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for treatment of nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995;113(4):456–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  374. McAllister IL, Douglas JP, Constable IJ, Yu DY. Laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion: evaluation of the complications and their risk factors. Am J Ophthalmol. 1998;126(2):219–29.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  375. McAllister IL, Gillies ME, Smithies LA, Rochtchina E, Harper CA, Daniell MD, et al. The Central Retinal Vein Bypass Study: a trial of laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2010;117(5):954–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  376. Fekrat S, Goldberg MF, Finkelstein D. Laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for nonischemic central or branch retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998;116(1):43–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  377. Browning DJ, Antoszyk AN. Laser chorioretinal venous anastomosis for nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 1998;105(4):670–7; discussion 677–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  378. Aktan SG, Subasi M, Akbatur H, Or M. Problems of chorioretinal venous anastomosis by laser for treatment of nonischemic central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmologica. 1998;212(6):389–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  379. Browning DJ, Rotberg MH. Vitreous hemorrhage complicating laser-induced chorioretinal anastomosis for central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(4):588–9.

    Google Scholar 

  380. Eccarius SG, Moran MJ, Slingsby JG. Choroidal neovascular membrane after laser-induced chorioretinal anastomosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996;122(4):590–1.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  381. Luttrull JK. Epiretinal membrane and traction retinal detachment complicating laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 1997;123(5):698–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  382. Bavbek T, Yenice O, Toygar O. Problems with attempted chorioretinal venous anastomosis by laser for nonischemic CRVO and BRVO. Ophthalmologica. 2005;219(5):267–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  383. Hayreh SS. t-PA in CRVO [letter]. Ophthalmology. 2002;109(10):1758–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  384. Hayreh SS. Retinal vein occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol. 1994;42(3):109–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  385. Weiss JN, Bynoe LA. t-PA in CRVO [reply]. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:1761–3.

    Google Scholar 

  386. Feltgen N, Junker B, Agostini H, Hansen LL. Retinal endovascular lysis in ischemic central retinal vein occlusion: one-year results of a pilot study. Ophthalmology. 2007;114(4):716–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  387. Richard G, Lerche RC, Knospe V, Zeumer H. Treatment of retinal arterial occlusion with local fibrinolysis using recombinant tissue plasminogen activator. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(4):768–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  388. Hayreh SS. Retinal arterial occlusion with LIF using rTPA [letter]. Ophthalmology. 1999;106(7):1236–9, 2044.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  389. Cotran RS, Kumar V, Robbins SL. Fate of the thrombus. In: Cotran RS, Kumar V, Robbins SL, editors. Robbins pathologic basis of disease. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1989. p. 102.

    Google Scholar 

  390. Vasco-Posada J. Modification of the circulation in the posterior pole of the eye. Ann Ophthalmol. 1972;4(1):48–59.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  391. Hayreh SS. Central retinal vein occlusion: differential diagnosis and management. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1977;83(3 Pt 1):OP379–91.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  392. Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of oedema of the optic disc (papilloedema). Thesis for PhD. London: London University; 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  393. Hayreh SS. Pathogenesis of oedema of the optic disc. Doc Ophthalmol. 1968;24(2):289–411.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  394. Dev S, Buckley EG. Optic nerve sheath decompression for progressive central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers. 1999;30(3):181–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  395. Rodriguez A, Rodriguez FJ, Betancourt F. Presumed occlusion of posterior ciliary arteries following central retinal vein decompression surgery. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994;112(1):54–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  396. Anderson DR, Hoyt WF. Ultrastructure of intraorbital portion of human and monkey optic nerve. Arch Ophthalmol. 1969;82(4):506–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  397. Hayreh SS. Radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2002;22:374–7, 827.

    Google Scholar 

  398. Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky PA. Retinal vein occlusion and the optic disk. Retina. 2012;32:2108–18.

    Google Scholar 

  399. Hayreh SS, Vrabec F. The structure of the head of the optic nerve in rhesus monkey. Am J Ophthalmol. 1966;61(1):136–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  400. Hayreh SS. Acute ischemic disorders of the optic nerve: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and management. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 1996;9(3):407–42.

    Google Scholar 

  401. Friberg TR, Smolinski P, Hill S, Kurup SK. Biomechanical assessment of radial optic neurotomy. Ophthalmology. 2008;115(1):174–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  402. Skevas C, Wagenfeld L, Feucht M, Galambos P, Richard G, Zeitz O. Radial optic neurotomy in central retinal vein occlusion does not influence ocular hemodynamics. Ophthalmologica. 2011;225(1):41–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  403. Schneider U, Inhoffen W, Grisanti S, Bartz-Schmidt KU. Characteristics of visual field defects by scanning laser ophthalmoscope microperimetry after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2005;25(6):704–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  404. Tsujikawa A, Hangai M, Kikuchi M, Ishida K, Kurimoto Y. Visual field defect after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2006;50(2):158–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  405. Barak A, Kesler A, Gold D, Loewenstein A. Visual field defects after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2006;26(5):549–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  406. Hasselbach HC, Ruefer F, Feltgen N, Schneider U, Bopp S, Hansen LL, et al. Treatment of central retinal vein occlusion by radial optic neurotomy in 107 cases. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;245(8):1145–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  407. Stoffelns BM, Kramann C, Hoffmann E. Radial optic neurotomy (RON) for central retinal vein occlusion. Klin Monbl Augenheilkd. 2007;224(4):282–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  408. Yamamoto T, Kamei M, Sakaguchi H, Oshima Y, Ikuno Y, Gomi F, et al. Comparison of surgical treatments for central retinal vein occlusion; RON vs. cannulation of tissue plasminogen activator into the retinal vein. Retina. 2009;29(8):1167–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  409. Yamamoto S, Takatsuna Y, Sato E, Mizunoya S. Central retinal artery occlusion after radial optic neurotomy in a patient with central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;139(1):206–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  410. Arevalo JF, Garcia RA, Wu L, Rodriguez FJ, Dalma-Weiszhausz J, Quiroz-Mercado H, et al. Radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion: results of the Pan-American Collaborative Retina Study Group (PACORES). Retina. 2008;28(8):1044–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  411. Martinez-Jardon CS, Meza-de Regil A, Dalma-Weiszhausz J, Leizaola-Fernandez C, Morales-Canton V, Guerrero-Naranjo JL, et al. Radial optic neurotomy for ischaemic central vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol. 2005;89(5):558–61.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  412. Sergott RC, Cohen MS, Bosley TM, Savino PJ. Optic nerve decompression may improve the progressive form of nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107(12):1743–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  413. Hayreh SS. The role of optic nerve sheath fenestration in management of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990;108(8):1063–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  414. Ischemic Optic Neuropathy Decompression Trial Research Group. Optic nerve decompression surgery for nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION) is not effective and may be harmful. JAMA. 1995;273(8):625–32.

    Google Scholar 

  415. Maia M, Farah ME, Aggio FB, Rodrigues EB, de Souza EC, Magalhaes Jr O. Peripapillary haemorrhagic retinal pigment epithelium detachment following radial optic neurotomy. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2007;35(7):672–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  416. Samuel MA, Desai UR, Gandolfo CB. Peripapillary retinal detachment after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2003;23(4):580–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  417. Schneider U, Inhoffen W, Grisanti S, Volker M, Bartz-Schmidt KU. Chorioretinal neovascularization after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging. 2005;36(6):508–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  418. Bakri SJ, Beer PM. Choroidal neovascularization after radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2004;24(4):610–1.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  419. Weizer JS, Stinnett SS, Fekrat S. Radial optic neurotomy as treatment for central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2003;136(5):814–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  420. Vogel A, Holz FG, Loeffler KU. Histopathologic findings after radial optic neurotomy in central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141(1):203–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  421. Czajka MP, Cummings TJ, McCuen 2nd BW, Toth CA, Nguyen H, Fekrat S. Radial optic neurotomy in the porcine eye without retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122(8):1185–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  422. Tachi N, Hashimoto Y, Ogino N. Vitrectomy for macular edema combined with retinal vein occlusion. Doc Ophthalmol. 1999;97(3–4):465–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  423. Mandelcorn MS, Nrusimhadevara RK. Internal limiting membrane peeling for decompression of macular edema in retinal vein occlusion: a report of 14 cases. Retina. 2004;24(3):348–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  424. Mandelcorn MS, Mandelcorn E, Guan K, Adatia FA. Surgical macular decompression for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Can J Ophthalmol. 2007;42(1):116–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  425. DeCroos FC, Shuler Jr RK, Stinnett S, Fekrat S. Pars plana vitrectomy, internal limiting membrane peeling, and panretinal endophotocoagulation for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;147(4):627–33 e621.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  426. Park DH, Kim IT. Long-term effects of vitrectomy and internal limiting membrane peeling for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion and hemiretinal vein occlusion. Retina. 2010;30(1):117–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  427. Coscas G, Dhermy P. Retinal venous occlusions. Bull Mem Soc Fr Ophtalmol. 1978;90:1–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  428. Kearns TP, Hollenhorst RW. Venous-stasis retinopathy of occlusive disease of the carotid artery. Mayo Clin Proc. 1963;38:304–12.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  429. Hayreh SS. Chronic ocular ischemic syndrome in internal carotid artery occlusive disease: controversy on venous stasis retinopathy. In: Bernstein EF, editor. Amaurosis fugax. New York: Springer; 1988. p. 135–58.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA, USA

    Sohan Singh Hayreh

Authors
  1. Sohan Singh Hayreh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hayreh, S.S. (2015). Central Retinal Vein Occlusion. In: Ocular Vascular Occlusive Disorders. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12781-1_24

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12781-1_24

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-12780-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-12781-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation