Abstract
Second-order judgments aim to regulate metacognitive judgments or at least to assess the accuracy of metacognitive judgments (first-order judgments). For this reason, second-order judgments can be seen as a form of meta-metacognition. In this chapter, we clarify the concept of meta-metacognition and how it relates to first-order metacognitive judgments. Furthermore, we explain why the concept of second-order judgments is an important addition to the research literature on metacognition and why it is an important concept in the context of learning and memory. We also present a new generalizable method for eliciting and measuring the accuracy (realism) of second-order judgments in the context of confidence judgments of semantic and episodic memory performance and suggest how this method can be computer implemented. An asset of this method is that it allows for fine-grained analyses of the strategies that people use when they make second-order judgments without reverting to think-aloud reports.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- JOL:
-
Judgments of learning
- M :
-
Mean
References
Buratti, S., Allwood, C.M.: The effects of advice and “try more” instructions on improving realism of confidence. Acta Psychol. 144(1), 136–144 (2013)
Serra, M.J., England, B.D.: Magnitude and accuracy differences between judgments of remembering and forgetting. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 65(11), 2231–2257 (2012)
Nelson, T.O., Narens, L.: Metamemory: a theoretical framework and new findings. In: Bower, G.H. (ed.) The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, pp. 1–45. Academic Press, New York (1990)
Allwood, C.M.: Eyewitness Confidence. In: Granhag, P.A. (ed.) Forensic Psychology in Context: Nordic and International Approaches, pp. 281–303. Willan Publishing, Devon (2010)
Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M.: Monitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy. Psychol. Rev. 103(3), 490–517 (1996)
Kleitman, S., Gibson, J.: Metacognitive beliefs, self-confidence and primary learning environment of sixth grade students. Learn. Individ. Differ. 21(6), 728–735 (2011)
Wang, M.C., Haertel, G.D., Walberg, H.J.: What influences learning? a content analysis of review literature. J. Educ. Res. 84(1), 30–43 (1990)
Allwood, C.M., Granhag, P.A.: Feelings of confidence and the realism of confidence judgments in everyday life. In: Juslin, P., Montgomery, H. (eds.) Judgment and decision making: Neo-Brunswikian and process-tracing approaches, pp. 123–146. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah (1999)
Cutler, B.L., Penrod, S.D., Stuve, T.E.: Juror decision making in eyewitness identification cases. Law Hum. Behav. 12(1), 41–55 (1988)
Lindsay, R.C., Wells, G.L., Rumpel, C.M.: Can people detect eyewitness-identification accuracy within and across situations? J. Appl. Psychol. 66(1), 79–89 (1981)
Wells, G.L., Ferguson, T.J., Lindsay, R.C.: The tractability of eyewitness confidence and its implications for triers of fact. J. Appl. Psychol. 66(6), 688–696 (1981)
Boyce, M., Beaudry, J.L., Lindsay, R.C.L.: Belief of eyewitness identification evidence. In: Lindsay, R.C., Ross, D.F., Don Read, J., Toglia, M.P. (eds.) Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology, vol. 2 Memory for People, pp. 501–525. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah (2007)
Griffin, D., Brenner, L.: Perspectives on probability judgment calibration. In: Koehler, D.J., Harvey, N. (eds.) Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making, pp. 177–198. Blackwell Publishing, Malden (2004)
Baranski, J.V., Petrusic, W.M.: Realism of confidence in sensory discrimination. Percept. Psychophys. 61(7), 1369–1383 (1999)
Björkman, M., Juslin, P., Winman, A.: Realism of confidence in sensory discrimination: the underconfidence phenomenon. Percept. Psychophys. 54(1), 75–81 (1993)
Stankov, L.: Calibration curves, scatterplots and the distinction between general knowledge and perceptual tasks. Learn. Individ. Differ. 10(1), 29–50 (1998)
McClelland, A.G.R., Bolger, F.: The calibration of subjective probability: Theories and models 1980–94. In: Wright, G., Ayton, P. (eds.) Subjective Probability, pp. 453–482. Wiley, Oxford (1994)
Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A.: Overconfidence produces underachievement: inaccurate self evaluations undermine students’ learning and retention. Learn. Instruct. 22, 271–280 (2012)
Brewer, N., Wells, G.L.: Eyewitness identification. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 20(1), 24–27 (2011)
Wells, G.L., Small, M., Penrod, S., Malpass, R.S., Fulero, S.M., Brimacombe, C.A.E.: Eyewitness identification procedures: recommendations for lineups and photospreads. Law Hum. Behav. 22(6), 603–647 (1998)
Flavell, J.H.: Metacognitive aspects of problem-solving. In: Resnick, L. (ed.) The Nature of Intelligence, pp. 231–236. Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale (1976)
Flavell, J.H.: Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. Am. Psychol. 34, 906–911 (1979)
Koriat, A.: Metacognition research: An interim report. In: Perfect, T.J., Schwartz, B.L. (eds.) Applied Metacognition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002)
Lai, E.R.: Metacognition: a literature review. Technical Report. Pearson Research Report http://www.pearsonassessments.com/hai/images/tmrs/Metacognition_Literature_Review_Final.pdf (2011)
Nelson, T.O., Narens, L.: Why investigate metacognition? In: Metcalfe, J., Shimamura, A.P. (eds.) Metacognition: knowing about knowing, pp. 1–25. MIT Press, Cambridge (2011)
Renkl, A., Mandl, H., Gruber, H.: Inert knowledge: ANALYSES and remedies. Educ. Psychol. 31(2), 115–121 (1996)
Roberts, M.J., Erdos, G.: Strategy selection and metacognition. Educ. Psychol. 13, 259–266 (1993)
Efklides, A., Misailidi, P.: Introduction: the present and the future in metacognition. In: Efklides, A., Misailidi, P. (eds.) Trends and Prospects in Metacognition Research. Springer, New York (2010)
Flavell, J.H., Miller, S.A., Miller, P.H.: Cognitive development, 3rd edn. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1993)
Buratti, S., Allwood, C.M.: The accuracy of meta-metacognitive judgments: Regulating the realism of confidence. Cogn. Process. 13(3), 243–253 (2012)
Kim, Y.R., Park, M.S., Moore, T.J., Varma, S.: Multiple levels of metacognition and their elicitation through complex problem-solving tasks. J. Mathematical Behavior 32, 377–396 (2013)
Efklides, A.: Metacognition: defining its facets and levels of functioning in relation to self-regulation and co-regulation. Eur. Psychol. 13(4), 277–287 (2008)
Arnold, M.M.: Monitoring and meta-metacognition in the own-race bias. Acta Psychol. 144, 380–389 (2013)
Buratti, S., Allwood, C.M.: Improved realism of confidence for an episodic memory event. Judgment Decis. Making 7(5), 590–601 (2012)
Buratti, S., Allwood, C.M., Kleitman, S.: First- and second-order metacognitive judgments of semantic memory reports: THE influence of personality traits and cognitive styles. Metacognition Learn. 8(1), 79–102 (2013)
Cesarini, D., Sandewall, Ö., Johannesson, M.: Confidence interval estimation tasks and the economics of overconfidence. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 61(3), 453–470 (2006)
Dunlosky, J., Serra, M.J., Matvey, G., Rawson, K.: Second-order judgments about Judgments of learning. J. Gen. Psychol. 132(4), 335–346 (2005)
Händel, M., Fritzsche, E.S: Students’ confidence in their performance judgments: a comparison of different response scales. Educational Psychology: Int. J. Exp. Educ. Psychol. (In Press) (2014)
Miller, T.M., Geraci, L.: Unskilled but aware: reinterpreting overconfidence in low-performing students. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 37(2), 502–506 (2011)
Serra, M.J., Dunlosky, J.: Do older adults show less confidence in their monitoring of learning? Exp. Aging Res. 34, 379–391 (2008)
Yates, J.F.: Subjective probability accuracy analysis. In: Wright, G.A., Ayton, P. (eds.) Subjective Probability, pp. 381–410. John Wiley and Sons, Oxford (1994)
Perfect, T.J.: The role of self-rated ability in the accuracy of confidence judgements in eyewitness memory and general knowledge. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 18(2), 157–168 (2004)
Perfect, T.J., Watson, E.L., Wagstaff, G.F.: Accuracy of confidence ratings associated with general knowledge and eyewitness memory. J. Appl. Psychol. 78(1), 144–147 (1993)
Touroutoglou, A., Efklides, A.: Cognitive interruption as an object of metacognitive monitoring: feeling of difficulty and surprise. In: Efklides, A., Misailidi, P. (eds.) Trends and Prospects in Metacognition Research, pp. 171–208. Springer, New York (2010)
Thompson, V.A., Prowse Turner, J.A., Pennycook, G.: Intuition, reason, and metacognition. Cogn. Psychol. 63, 107–140 (2011)
Allwood, C.M.: Error detection processes in sta-tisti-cal problem solving. Cogn. Science 8, 413–437 (1984)
Koriat, A., Nussinson, R., Bless, H., Shaked, N.: Information-based and experience-based metacognitive judgments: evidence from subjective confidence. In: Dunlosky, J., Bjork, R.A. (eds.) A Handbook of Memory and Metamemory, pp. 117–136. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah (2008)
Alter, A.L., Oppenheimer, D.M.: Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacognitive nation. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 13(3), 219–235 (2009)
Kelley, C.M., Lindsay, D.S.: Remembering mistaken for knowing: Ease of retrieval as a basis for confidence in answers to general knowledge questions. J. Mem. Lang. 32(1), 1–24 (1993)
Koriat, A.: How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychol. Rev. 100(4), 609–639 (1993)
Robinson, M.D., Johnson, J.T., Herndon, F.: Reaction time and assessments of cognitive effort as predictors of eyewitness memory accuracy and confidence. J. Appl. Psychol. 82(3), 416–425 (1997)
Robinson, M.D., Johnson, J.T., Robertson, D.A.: Process versus content in eyewitness metamemory monitoring. J. Exp. Psychol. Appl. 6(3), 207–221 (2000)
Tulving, E.: Memory and consciousness. Can. Psychol. /Psychologie Canadienne 26(1), 1–12 (1985)
Seemungal, F.V., Stevenage, S.V.: Using state of awareness judgements to improve eyewitness confidence-accuracy judgements. In: Chambres, P., Izaute, M., Marescaux, P.J. (eds.) Metacognition: Process, Function and Use, pp. 219–231. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (2002)
Goldberg, L.R.: The development of markers for the big five structure. Psychol. Assess. 4, 26–42 (1992)
Raskin, R., Terry, H.: A principal components analysis of the narcissistic personality inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 54, 890–902 (1988)
Cacioppo, J.T., Petty, R.E.: The need for cognition. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 42(1), 116–131 (1982)
Webster, D.M., Kruglanski, A.W.: Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 67(6), 1049–1062 (1994)
Pallier, G., Wilkinson, R., Danthir, V., Kleitman, S., Knezevic, G., Stankov, L., Roberts, R.D.: The role of individual differences in the accuracy of confidence judgments. J. Gen. Psychol. 129(3), 257–299 (2002)
Schaefer, P.S., Williams, C.C., Goodie, A.S., Campbell, W.K.: Overconfidence and the big five. J. Res. Pers. 38(5), 473–480 (2004)
Campbell, W.K., Goodie, A.S., Foster, J.D.: Narcissism, confidence, and risk attitude. J. Behav. Dec. Making 17(4), 297–311 (2004)
Dahl, M., Allwood, C.M., Rennemark, M., Hagberg, B.: The relation between personality and the realism in confidence judgements in older adults. Eur. J. Ageing 7(4), 283–291 (2010)
Johnson, T.R., Budescu, D.V., Wallsten, T.S.: Averaging probability judgments: Monte Carlo analyses of asymptotic diagnostic value. J. Behav. Dec. Making 14(2), 123–140 (2001)
Wallsten, T.S., Diederich, A.: Understanding pooled subjective probability estimates. Math. Soc. Sci. 41, 1–18 (2001)
Allwood, C.M., Granhag, P.A., Johansson, M.: Increased realism in eyewitness confidence judgments: The effect of dyadic collaboration. Appl. Cogn. Psychol. 17, 545–561 (2003)
Herzog, S.M., Hertwig, R.: The wisdom of many in one mind: Improving individual judgments with dialectical bootstrapping. Psychol. Sci. 20(2), 231–237 (2009)
Leclercq, D.: Validity, reliability, and acuity of self-assessment in educational testing. In: Leclercq, D., Bruno, J. (eds.) Item Banking: Interactive Testing and Self-Assessment, pp. 114–131. Springer Verlag, Berlin (1993)
Fraundorf, S.H., Benjamin, A.S.: Knowing the crowd within: metacognitive limits on combining multiple judgments. J. Mem. Lang. 71, 17–38 (2014)
Surowiecki, J.: The Wisdom of the Crowds. Abacus, London, UK (2004)
Larrick, R.P.: Debiasing. In: Koehler, D.J., Harvey, N. (eds.) Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making, pp. 316–337. Blackwell Publishing, Malden (2004)
Larrick, R.P.: Broaden the decision frame to make effective decisions. In: Locke, E.A. (ed.) Handbook of Principles of Organizational Behavior, 2nd edn, pp. 461–480. Wiley, Chichester (2009)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Buratti, S., Allwood, C.M. (2015). Regulating Metacognitive Processes—Support for a Meta-metacognitive Ability. In: Peña-Ayala, A. (eds) Metacognition: Fundaments, Applications, and Trends. Intelligent Systems Reference Library, vol 76. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11062-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11062-2_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-11061-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-11062-2
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)