Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychosis in Parkinson’s Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Movement Disorders

Part of the book series: Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Neurological Disease ((NSND))

Abstract

Psychosis is one of the most disabling non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Common psychotic features in PD include visual hallucinations and delusions. However, not all PD patients will develop psychosis, and a variety of factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic, contribute to its occurrence. Dopaminergic dysfunction plays an important role, along with the role of other neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and serotonin. Apart from dopaminergic and other medications, other reported risk factors include increased age, comorbidities, cognitive impairment, sleep disturbances, visual processing deficits, genetic predisposition and Lewy body distribution. While the specific course of PD psychosis remains to be adequately described, it seems clear that psychotic symptoms, once present, are persistent and distressing. Optimal management includes identification of contributing potential causes, optimization of the environment, antiparkinsonian medication adjustment, and symptomatic management with specific medications such as quetiapine and clozapine and, in those with cognitive impairment, cholinesterase inhibitors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Chaudhuri KR, Martinez-Martin P, Schapira AH, Stocchi F, Sethi K, Odin P, Brown RG, Koller W, Barone P, MacPhee G, Kelly L, Rabey M, MacMahon D, Thomas S, Ondo W, Rye D, Forbes A, Tluk S, Dhawan V, Bowron A, Williams AJ, Olanow CW. International multicenter pilot study of the first comprehensive self-completed nonmotor symptoms questionnaire for Parkinson’s disease: the NMSQuest study. Mov Disord. 2006;21(7):916–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Parkinson J. An essay on the shaking palsy. London: Neely and Jones; 1817.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Ball B. De l‘insanité dans la paralysie agitante. Encéphale. 1882;2:22–32.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Regis E. Precis de Psychiatrie. Paris: Gaston Doiz; 1906.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Jackson JA, Free GBM, Pike HV. The psychic manifestations in paralysis agitans. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1923;10:680–4.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Mjönes H. Paralysis agitans, A clinical and genetic study. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard; 1949.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Schwab RS, Fabing HD, Prichard JS. Psychiatric symptoms and syndromes in Parkinson’s disease. Am J Psychiatry. 1950;107:901–7.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Fenelon G, Goetz CG, Karenberg A. Hallucinations in Parkinson disease in the prelevodopa era. Neurology. 2006;66:93–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Molho ES. Drug-induced psychosis: terminology, history, and frequency. In: Factor SA, Weiner WJ, editors. Parkinson’s disease: diagnosis and clinical management. New York: Demos Medical Publishing; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Jenkins RB, Groh RH. Mental symptoms in Parkinsonian patients with L-dopa. Lancet. 1970;2:177–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Damasio AR, Lobo-Antunes J, Macedo C. Psychiatric aspects in Parkinsonism treated with L-dopa. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1971;34:502–7.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Goodwin FK. Psychiatric side effects of levodopa in man. JAMA. 1971;218:1915–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Sanchez-Ramos JR, Ortoll R, Paulson GW. Visual hallucinations associated with Parkinson’s disease. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:1265–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Aarsland D, Larsen JP, Cummings JL, Laake K. Prevalence and clinical correlates of psychotic symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Arch Neurol. 1999;56:595–601.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Quelhas R. Psychiatric care in Parkinson’s disease. J Psychiatr Pract. 2013;19(2):118–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Lepore FE. Visual loss as a causative factor in visual hallucinations associated with Parkinson’s disease. Arch Neurol. 1997;54:799.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Oyebode F. Sims symptoms in the mind: an introduction to descriptive psychopathology. 4th ed. Edinburgh: Saunders Elsevier; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Fénelon G, Mahieux F, Huon R, Ziegler M. Hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Prevalence, phenomenology and risk factors. Brain. 2000;123:733–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Aarsland D, Larsen JP, Karlsen K, Lim NG, Tandberg E. Mental symptoms in Parkinson’s disease are important contributors to caregiver distress. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999;14:866–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Aarsland D, Larsen JP, Tandberg E, Laake K. Predictors of nursing home placement in Parkinson’s disease: a population-based, prospective study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2000;48:938–42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Factor SA, Feustel PJ, Friedman JH, Comella CL, Goetz CG, Kurlan R, Parsa M, Pfeiffer R, Parkinson Study Group. Longitudinal outcome of Parkinson’s disease patients with psychosis. Neurology. 2003;60:1756–61.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Aarsland D, Brønnick K, Ehrt U, De Deyn PP, Tekin S, Emre M, Cummings JL. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with Parkinson’s disease and dementia: frequency, profile and associated care giver stress. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78:36–42.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Stuebner E, Vichayanrat E, Low DA, Mathias CJ, Isenmann S, Haensch C-A. Nocturnal blood pressure, non-dipping and psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Sci, 2013;333(e75–e76):0022–510X.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Chaudhuri KR, Martinez-Martin P. Quantitation of non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2008;15 Suppl 2:2–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Berardelli A, Wenning GK, Antonini A, Berg D, Bloem BR, Bonifati V, Brooks D, Burn DJ, Colosimo C, Fanciulli A, Ferreira J, Gasser T, Grandas F, Kanovsky P, Kostic V, Kulisevsky J, Oertel W, Poewe W, Reese JP, Relja M, Ruzicka E, Schrag A, Seppi K, Taba P, Vidailhet M. EFNS/MDS-ES recommendations for the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. Eur J Neurol. 2013;20:16–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Mack J, Rabins P, Anderson K, Goldstein S, Grill S, Hirsch ES, Lehmann S, Little JT, Margolis RL, Palanci J, Pontone G, Weiss H, Williams JR, Marsh L. Prevalence of psychotic symptoms in a community-based Parkinson disease sample. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2012;20:123–32.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Fénelon G, Alves G. Epidemiology of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Sci. 2010;289:12–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Barnes J, Connelly V, Wiggs L, Boubert L, Maravic K. Sleep patterns in Parkinson’s disease patients with visual hallucinations. Int J Neurosci. 2010;120:564–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Barnes J, David AS. Visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: a review and phenomenological survey. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:727–33.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Goetz CG, Ouyang B, Negron A, Stebbins GT. Hallucinations and sleep disorders in PD Ten-year prospective longitudinal study. Neurology. 2010;75:1773–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Goetz CG, Vogel C, Tanner CM, Stebbins GT. Early dopaminergic drug-induced hallucinations in parkinsonian patients. Neurology. 1998;51:811–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Khoo TK, Yarnall AJ, Duncan GW, Coleman S, O’Brien JT, Brooks DJ, Barker RA, Burn DJ. The spectrum of nonmotor symptoms in early Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2013;80:276–81.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. McKeith IG, Dickson DW, Lowe J, Emre M, O’Brien JT, Feldman H, Cummings J, Duda JE, Lippa C, Perry EK, Aarsland D, Arai H, Ballard CG, Boeve B, Burn DJ, Costa D, Del Ser T, Dubois B, Galasko D, Gauthier S, Goetz CG, Gomez-Tortosa E, Halliday G, Hansen LA, Hardy J, Iwatsubo T, Kalaria RN, Kaufer D, Kenny RA, Korczyn A, Kosaka K, Lee VM, Lees A, Litvan I, Londos E, Lopez OL, Minoshima S, Mizuno Y, Molina JA, Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, Pasquier F, Perry RH, Schulz JB, Trojanowski JQ, Yamada M, Consortium on DLB. Diagnosis and management of dementia with Lewy bodies: third report of the DLB Consortium. Neurology. 2005;65:1863–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Mosimann UP, Rowan EN, Partington CE, Collerton D, Littlewood E, O’Brien JT, Burn DJ, McKeith IG. Characteristics of visual hallucinations in Parkinson disease dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;14:153–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Thanvi BR, Lo TC, Harsh DP. Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Postgrad Med J. 2005;81:644–6.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Ravina B, Marder K, Fernandez HH, Friedman JH, McDonald W, Murphy D, Aarsland D, Babcock D, Cummings J, Endicott J, Factor S, Galpern W, Lees A, Marsh L, Stacy M, Gwinn-Hardy K, Voon V, Goetz C. Diagnostic criteria for psychosis in Parkinson’s disease: report of an NINDS, NIMH work group. Mov Disord. 2007;22:1061–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Duvoisin RC. Parkinson’s disease. A guide for patient and family. Raven: New York; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Haeske-Dewick HC. Hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: characteristics and associated features. Int J Geriatr Psych. 1995;10:487–95.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Thompson C. Anwesenheit: psychopathology and clinical associations. Br J Psychiatry. 1982;141:628–30.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Graham JM, Gruenewald RA, Sagar HJ. Hallucinosis in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;63:434–40.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Diederich NJ, Pieri V, Goetz CG. Die visuellen Halluzinationen des Parkinson-Patienten und das Charles Bonnet Syndrom. Eine phänomenologische und pathogenetische Gegenüberstellung. Fortschr Neurol Psychiat. 2000;68:129–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Holroyd S, Currie L, Wooten GF. Prospective study of hallucinations and delusions in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70:734–8.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Goetz CG, Diederich NJ, Fenelon G. Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. In: Chaudhuri KR, editor. Non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. New York: Oxford University Press; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Diederich NH, Pieri V, Goetz CG. Coping strategies for visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2003;18:831–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Manni R, Pacchetti C, Terzaghi M, Sartori I, Mancini F, Nappi G. Hallucinations and sleep-wake cycle in PD: a 24-h continuous polysomnographic study. Neurology. 2002;59:1979–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Inzelberg R, Kipervasser S, Korczyn AD. Auditory hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998;64:533–5.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Factor SA, Molho ES. Threatening auditory hallucinations and Cotard syndrome in Parkinson disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2004;27:205–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Marsh L, Williams JR, Rocco M, Grill S, Munro C, Dawson TM. Psychiatric comorbidities in patients with Parkinson disease and psychosis. Neurology. 2004;63:293–300.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Fénelon G, Thobois S, Bonnet AM, Broussolle E, Tison F. Tactile hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol. 2002;12:1699–703.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, Ortí-Pareja M, Gasalla T, Tallón-Barranco A, Cabrera-Valdivia F, Fernández-Lliria A. Cenesthetic hallucinations in a patient with Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1997;63:120.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Sandyk R. Olfactory hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. S Afr Med J. 1981;60:950.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Goetz CG, Wuu J, Curgian LM, Leurgans S. Hallucinations and sleep disorders in PD: six-year prospective longitudinal study. Neurology. 2005;64:81–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Chou KL, Messing S, Oakes D, Feldman PD, Breier A, Friedman JH. Drug induced psychosis in Parkinson disease: phenomenology and correlations among psychosis rating instruments. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2005;28:215–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Klawans H. Levodopa-induced psychosis. Psychiatr Ann. 1978;8:447–71.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Rabey JM. Hallucinations and psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2009;15 Suppl 4:S105–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Zahodne LB, Fernandez HH. A review of the pathophysiology and treatment of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Drugs Aging. 2008;25(8):665–82.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Kiziltan G, Ozekmekci S, Ertan S, Ertan T, Erginoz E. Relationship between age and subtypes of psychotic symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol. 2007;254(4):448–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. De Smet Y, Ruberg M, Serdaru M, Dubois B, Lhermitte F, Agid Y. Confusion, dementia and anticholinergics in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1982;45:1161–4.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Golden WE, Lavender RC, Metzer WS. Acute postoperative confusion and hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Ann Intern Med. 1989;111:218–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Goetz CG. Hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: the clinical syndrome. Adv Neurol. 1999;80:419–23.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Gallagher DA, Schrag A. Psychosis, apathy, depression and anxiety in Parkinson’s disease. Neurobiol Dis. 2012;46(3):581–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Factor SA, Molho ES, Podskalny GD, Brown D. Parkinson’s disease: drug-induced psychiatric states. Adv Neurol. 1995;65:115–38.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Papapetropoulos S, Mash DC. Psychotic symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. From description to etiology. J Neurol. 2005;252:753–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Goetz CG, Leurgans S, Pappert EJ, Raman R, Stemer AB. Prospective longitudinal assessment of hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 2001;57:2078–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Goetz CG, Wuu J, Curgian L, Leurgans S. Age-related influences on the clinical characteristics of new-onset hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease patients. Mov Disord. 2006;21:267–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Stuebner E, Vichayanrat E, Low DA, Mathias CJ, Isenmann S, Haensch CA. Twenty-four hour non-invasive ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate monitoring in Parkinson’s disease. Front Neurol. 2013;4:49.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Achary MSN, Govindappa ST, Basu P, Kumarswamy SD, Ramanathan R, Muthane UB. Phenomenology and factors causing psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2012;27:S280.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Bailbe M, Karolewicz S, Neau JP, Dumas P, Gil R, Association des neurologues du Poitou-Charentes. Hallucinations, delusions, and nocturnal events in 152 Parkinson’s patients: a regional survey. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2002;158(2):203–10.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Schrag A, Ben-Shlomo Y, Quinn N. How common are complications of Parkinson’s disease? J Neurol. 2002;249(4):419–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Paleacu D, Schechtman E, Inzelberg R. Association between family history of dementia and hallucinations in Parkinson disease. Neurology. 2005;64:1712–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Terzaghi M, Sinforiani E, Zucchella C, Zambrelli E, Pasotti C, Rustioni V, Manni R. Cognitive performance in REM sleep behaviour disorder: a possible early marker of neurodegenerative disease? Sleep Med. 2008;9(4):343–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Williams DR, Warren JD, Lees AJ. Using the presence of visual hallucinations to differentiate Parkinson’s disease from atypical parkinsonism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2008;79(6):652–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Fénelon G, Soulas T, Zenasni F, Cleret de Langavant L. The changing face of Parkinson’s disease-associated psychosis: a cross-sectional study based on the new NINDS-NIMH criteria. Mov Disord. 2010;25(6):763–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Sawada H, Oeda T, Umemura A, Tomita S, Hayashi R, Kohsaka M, Nakano H, Yamamoto K. Hallucinations and delusions in patients with Parkinson’s disease – evaluation by the Parkinson psychosis questionnaire. Eur J Neurol. 2011;18 Suppl 2:518.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Yadav R, Amar BR, Reddy YCJ, Pal PK. Pattern of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2012;18 Suppl 1:31.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Lee AH, Weintraub D. Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease without dementia: common and comorbid with other non-motor symptoms. Mov Disord. 2012;27(7):858–63.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Moskovitz C, Moses H, Klawans HL. Levodopa-induced psychosis: a kindling phenomenon. Am J Psychiatry. 1978;135:669–75.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Wint DP, Okun MS, Fernandez HH. Psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 2004;17(3):127–36.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Bell DS. The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1973;29:35–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Goetz CG, Tanner CM, Klawans HL. Pharmacology of hallucinations induced by long-term drug therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 1982;139(4):494–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Glenthøj BY, Hemmingsen R. Dopaminergic sensitization: implications for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 1997;21:23–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Wolters EC. Intrinsic and extrinsic psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol. 2001;248 Suppl 3:III22–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Sato M, Chen CC, Akiyama K, Otsuki S. Acute exacerbation of paranoid psychotic state after long-term abstinence in patients with previous methamphetamine psychosis. Biol Psychiatry. 1983;18:429–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Sato M, Numachi Y, Hamamura T. Relapse of paranoid psychotic state in methamphetamine model of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 1992;18:115–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Melamed E. Neurobehavioral abnormalities in Parkinson’s disease. In: Watts RL, Koller WC, editors. Movement disorders. New York: McGraw Hill; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Goetz CG, Pappert EJ, Blasucci LM, Stebbins GT, Ling ZD, Nora MV, Carvey PM. Intravenous levodopa in hallucinating Parkinson’s disease patients: high-dose challenge does not precipitate hallucinations. Neurology. 1998;50(2):515–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Richelson E. Receptor pharmacology of neuroleptics: relation to clinical effects. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999;60 Suppl 10:5–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Perry E, Walker M, Grace J, Perry R. Acetylcholine in mind: a neurotransmitter correlate of consciousness? Trends Neurosci. 1999;22:273–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Whitehouse PJ. Clinical and neurochemical consequences of neuronal loss in the nucleus basalis of Meynert in Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Adv Neurol. 1987;45:393–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Nakano I, Hirano A. Parkinson’s disease: neuron loss in the nucleus basalis without concomitant Alzheimer’s disease. Ann Neurol. 1984;15:415–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Papapetropoulos S. Drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson disease: phenomenology and correlations among psychosis rating instruments. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2006;29:59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Goetz CG, Fan W, Leurgans S, Bernard B, Stebbins GT. The malignant course of “benign hallucinations” in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol. 2006;63:713–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Moustafa AA, Krishna R, Frank MJ, Eissa AM, Hewedi DH. Cognitive correlates of psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Cogn Neuropsychiatr. 2014;19:381–98 [Epub ahead of print].

    Google Scholar 

  94. Harding AJ, Broe GA, Halliday GM. Visual hallucinations in Lewy body disease relate to Lewy bodies in the temporal lobe. Brain. 2002;125(2):391–403.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Williams DR, Lees AJ. Visual hallucinations in the diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a retrospective autopsy study. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4:605–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Papapetropoulos S, McCorquodale DS, Gonzalez J, Jean-Gilles L, Mash DC. Cortical and amygdalar Lewy body burden in Parkinson’s disease patients with visual hallucinations. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2006;122(4):253–6.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Larsen JP, Tandberg E. Sleep disorders in patients with Parkinson’s disease. CNS Drugs. 2001;15(4):267–75.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Pacchetti C, Manni R, Zangaglia R, Mancini F, Marchioni E, Tassorelli C, Terzaghi M, Ossola M, Martignoni E, Moglia A, Nappi G. Relationship between hallucinations, delusions, and rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2005;20(11):1439–48.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Pappert EJ, Goetz CG, Niederman FG, Raman R, Leurgans S. Hallucinations, sleep fragmentation, and altered dream phenomena in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 1999;14:117–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Comella CL, Tanner CM, Ristanovic RK. Polysomnographic sleep measures in Parkinson’s disease patients with treatment-induced hallucinations. Ann Neurol. 1993;34:710–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Arnulf I, Konofal E, Merino-Andreu M, Houeto JL, Mesnage V, Welter ML, Lacomblez L, Golmard JL, Derenne JP, Agid Y. Parkinson’s disease and sleepiness. An integral part of PD. Neurology. 2002;58:1019–24.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Diedrich NJ, Goetz CG, Raman R, Pappert EJ, Leurgans S, Piery V. Poor visual discrimination and visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1998;21:289–95.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Bodis-Wollner I. Visual deficits related to dopamine deficiency in experimental animals and Parkinson’s disease patients. Trends Neurosci. 1990;13(7):296–302.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Maurage CA, Ruchoux MM, de Vos R, Surguchov A, Destee A. Retinal involvement in dementia with Lewy bodies: a clue to hallucinations? Ann Neurol. 2003;54:542–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Onofrj M, Bonanni L, Albani G, Mauro A, Bulla D, Thomas A. Visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease: clues to separate origins. J Neurol Sci. 2006;248:143–50.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Kraft E, Winkelmann J, Trenkwalder C, Auer DP. Visual hallucinations: white matter lesions and disease severity in Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 1999;99(6):362–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Stebbins GT, Goetz CG, Carrillo MC, Bangen KJ, Turner DA, Glover GH, Gabrieli JD. Altered cortical visual processing in PD with hallucinations. Neurology. 2004;63:1409–16.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Holroyd S, Wooten GF. Preliminary fMRI evidence of visual system dysfunction in Parkinson’s disease patients with visual hallucinations. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006;18(3):402–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Barnes J, Boubert L, Harris J, Lee A, David AS. Reality monitoring and visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Neuropsychologia. 2003;41:565–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Gallagher DA, Parkkinen L, O’Sullivan SS, Spratt A, Shah A, Davey CC, Bremner FD, Revesz T, Williams DR, Lees AJ, Schrag A. Testing an aetiological model of visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Brain. 2011;134(Pt 11):3299–309.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. De la Fuente-Fernandez R, Nunez MA, Lopez E. The apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele increases the risk of drug-induced hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1999;22(4):226–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Feldman B, Chapman J, Korczyn AD. Apolipoprotein epsilon4 advances appearance of psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand. 2006;113(1):14–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Goetz CG, Burke PF, Leurgans S, Berry-Kravis E, Blasucci LM, Raman R, Zhou L. Genetic variation analysis in Parkinson disease patients with and without hallucinations: case–control study. Arch Neurol. 2001;58(2):209–13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Camicioli R, Rajput A, Rajput M, Reece C, Payami H, Hao C, Rajput A. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 and catechol-O-methyltransferase alleles in autopsy-proven Parkinson’s disease: relationship to dementia and hallucinations. Mov Disord. 2005;20(8):989–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Papapetropoulos S, Farrer MJ, Stone JT, Milkovic NM, Ross OA, Calvo L, McQuorquodale D, Mash DC. Phenotypic associations of tau and ApoE in Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett. 2007;414(2):141–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Chen CC, Lee ST, Wu T, Chen CJ, Chen MC, Lu CS. Short-term effects of bilateral subthalamic stimulation for advanced Parkinson’s disease. Chang Gung Med J. 2003;26(5):344–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Herzog J, Volkmann J, Krack P, Kopper F, Pötter M, Lorenz D, Steinbach M, Klebe S, Hamel W, Schrader B, Weinert D, Müller D, Mehdorn HM, Deuschl G. Two-year follow-up of subthalamic deep brain stimulation in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2003;18(11):1332–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Castelli L, Perozzo P, Zibetti M, Crivelli B, Morabito U, Lanotte M, Cossa F, Bergamasco B, Lopiano L. Chronic deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus for Parkinson’s disease: effects on cognition, mood, anxiety and personality traits. Eur Neurol. 2006;55(3):136–44.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Vesper J, Haak S, Ostertag C, Nikkhah G. Subthalamic. Nucleus deep brain stimulation in elderly patients – analysis of outcome and complications. BMC Neurol. 2007;7:7.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. Stephenson R, Houghton D, Sundarararjan S, Doty RL, Stern M, Xie SX, Siderowf A. Odor identification deficits are associated with increased risk of neuropsychiatric complications in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2010;25(13):2099–104.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  121. Kitayama M, Wada-Isoe K, Irizawa Y, Nakashima K. Association of visual hallucinations with reduction of MIBG cardiac uptake in Parkinson’s disease. J Neurol Sci. 2008;264:22–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Sawada H, Oeda T, Umemura A, Tomita S, Hayashi R, Kohsaka M, Yamamoto K, Sudoh S, Sugiyama H. Subclinical elevation of plasma C-reactive protein and illusions/hallucinations in subjects with Parkinson’s disease: case–control study. PLoS One. 2014;9(1):e85886.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Wolters EC, Berendse HW. Management of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Curr Opin Neurol. 2001;14:499–504.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Fernandez HH, Donnelly EM, Friedman JH. Long-term outcome of clozapine use for psychosis in parkinsonian patients. Mov Disord. 2004;19(7):831–3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Fernandez HH, Trieschmann ME, Okun MS. Rebound psychosis: effect of discontinuation of antipsychotics in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2005;20(1):104–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Ramirez-Ruiz B, Junque C, Marti MJ, Valldeoriola F, Tolosa E. Cognitive changes in Parkinson’s disease patients with visual hallucinations. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2007;23(5):281–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Uc EY, Struck LK, Rodnitzky RL, Zimmerman B, Dobson J, Evans WJ. Predictors of weight loss in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2006;21(7):930–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Goetz CG, Stebbins GT. Risk factors for nursing home placement in advanced Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 1993;43:2227–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Kempster PA, O’Sullivan SS, Holton JL, Revesz T, Lees AJ. Relationships between age and late progression of Parkinson’s disease: a clinico-pathological study. Brain. 2010;133(Pt 6):1755–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Goetz CG, Stebbins GT. Mortality and hallucinations in nursing home patients with advanced Parkinson’s disease. Neurology. 1995;45:669–71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Hindle JV. The practical management of cognitive impairment and psychosis in the older Parkinson’s disease patient. J Neural Transm. 2013;120(4):649–53.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. NICE guideline CG103, Delirium: diagnosis, prevention and management. http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG103.

  133. Hindle JV. Neuropsychiatry. In: Playfer J, Hindle J, editors. Parkinson’s disease in the older patient. 2nd ed. Oxford: Radcliffe; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  134. The Parkinson Study Group. Low-dose clozapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(10):757–63.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Schulte P. Risk of clozapine-associated agranulocytosis and mandatory white blood cell monitoring. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40(4):683–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Taylor D, Paton C, Kapur S. The Maudsley prescribing guidelines. 10th ed. London: Informa Healthcare; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Eng ML, Welty TE. Management of hallucinations and psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2010;8(4):316–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Bleakley S. Identifying and reducing the risk of antipsychotic drug interactions. Prog Neurol Psychiatry. 2012;16(2):20–4.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Shotbolt P, Samuel M, David A. Quetiapine in the treatment of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2010;3(6):339–50.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  140. Huybrechts KF, Schneeweiss S, Gerhard T, Olfson M, Avorn J, Levin R, Lucas JA, Crystal S. Comparative safety of antipsychotic medications in nursing home residents. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60(3):420–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  141. Huybrechts KF, Gerhard T, Crystal S, Olfson M, Avorn J, Levin R, Lucas JA, Schneeweiss S. Differential risk of death in older residents in nursing homes prescribed specific antipsychotic drugs: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2012;344:e977.

    PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  142. Murray M. Role of CYP pharmacogenetics and drug-drug interactions in the efficacy and safety of atypical and other antipsychotic agents. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2006;58(7):871–85.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Seppi K, Weintraub D, Coelho M, Perez-Lloret S, Fox SH, Katzenschlager R, Hametner EM, Poewe W, Rascol O, Goetz CG, Sampaio C. The movement disorder society evidence-based medicine review update: treatments for the non-motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2011;26 Suppl 3:S42–80.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  144. Goldman JG, Vaughan CL, Goetz CG. An update expert opinion on management and research strategies in Parkinson’s disease psychosis. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2011;12(13):2009–24.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  145. Emre M, Aarsland D, Albanese A, Byrne EJ, Deuschl G, De Deyn PP, Durif F, Kulisevsky J, van Laar T, Lees A, Poewe W, Robillard A, Rosa MM, Wolters E, Quarg P, Tekin S, Lane R. Rivastigmine for dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(24):2509–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Burn D, Emre M, McKeith I, De Deyn PP, Aarsland D, Hsu C, Lane R. Effects of rivastigmine in patients with and without visual hallucinations in dementia associated with Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord. 2006;21(11):1899–907.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Cummings J, Isaacson S, Mills R, Williams H, Chi-Burris K, Corbett A, Dhall R, Ballard C. Pimavanserin for patients with Parkinson’s disease psychosis: a randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet. 2014;383(9916):533–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Li CT, Tsai SJ, Hwang JP. Pramipexole-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008;62(2):245.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Habermeyer B, Kneifel S, Lotz-Bläuer I, Müller-Spahn F. Psychosis in a case of schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008;20(3):373–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, South London and Maudsley NHS Trust, Lewisham University Hospital, Lewisham High Street, Lewisham, London, SE13 6LH, England, UK

    Ilia Bountouni MRCPsych, MD

  2. Department of Neurology, National Parkinson Foundation International Centre of Excellence, King’s College Hospital, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 9RS, UK

    Panagiotis Zis MRCPsych, MSc, PhD

  3. National Parkinson Foundation International Centre of Excellence, Kings College Hospital and Kings College, Kings Neuroscience Research and Development, DeNDroN, London South, UK

    K. Ray Chaudhuri DSc MD FRCP (Edin) FRCP (Lond)

  4. Movement Disorders Society Non Motor Study Group, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 9RS, UK

    K. Ray Chaudhuri DSc MD FRCP (Edin) FRCP (Lond)

  5. Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Institute of Neurology, Royal Free Campus, University College London, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, UK

    Anette Schrag FRCP, PhD

Authors
  1. Ilia Bountouni MRCPsych, MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Panagiotis Zis MRCPsych, MSc, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. K. Ray Chaudhuri DSc MD FRCP (Edin) FRCP (Lond)
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Anette Schrag FRCP, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anette Schrag FRCP, PhD .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Sachsen, Germany

    Heinz Reichmann

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bountouni, I., Zis, P., Chaudhuri, K.R., Schrag, A. (2015). Psychosis in Parkinson’s Disease. In: Reichmann, H. (eds) Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Movement Disorders. Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Neurological Disease. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09537-0_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09537-0_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-09536-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-09537-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation