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Understanding Self-Determination

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Minorities, Minority Rights and Internal Self-Determination

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Abstract

Associating minorities with self-determination invites criticism. It also means taking on a number of conceptual issues. In order to discuss a possible link, the basis is laid in a historical review before tackling the conceptual issues that self-determination faces. Self-determination has been endowed with meanings, has been interpreted and possibly misinterpreted for decades. This chapter offers the understanding of self-determination that is used in this project.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The term ‘self-determination’ does actually not appear in the Fourteen Points which are often cited as the entrance of self-determination into the international arena. See Pomerance (1976), pp. 1–2.

  2. 2.

    Thomas Franck goes as far back as pre-Christian times to find the ideas that later came to be the basis for self-determination. I restrict myself to modern times. See Franck (1992), p. 53. Kalana Senaratne has criticized the Western ethnocentrism of the generally accepted concept of self-determination. See Senaratne (2013b).

  3. 3.

    Those referred to as the Great Powers are France, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia. In changing alliances their foremost goal was the maintenance of a balance of power between themselves. They did not always all engage on a specific issue, but largely nothing went on in the Europe of the nineteenth century without some kind of involvement of one or some of these states.

  4. 4.

    Krasner (1999), p. 155.

  5. 5.

    Krasner (1999), pp. 157–159.

  6. 6.

    Krasner (1999), p. 165.

  7. 7.

    See Wambaugh (1920), pp. 58–101, esp. p. 65. For more details on European influence on Italian unification see Hearder (1990), pp. 178–197.

  8. 8.

    Scheltema (1999), p. 771.

  9. 9.

    See also Wheaton (1878), pp. 16–17.

  10. 10.

    Lorimer (1883), pp. 94–95.

  11. 11.

    On the zones of humanities and who belongs to which humanity see Lorimer (1883), pp. 101–102.

  12. 12.

    Lorimer (1883), p. 103.

  13. 13.

    The plan envisaged six member states in a federation. See Steiner et al. (2008), p. 973. On Wilson’s idea on an integral state of Austria–Hungary see Whelan (1994), p. 100.

  14. 14.

    Ádám (2004), p. 33. See also House (1976), p. 429. For the same opinion see also de Azcárate (1945), p. 7.

  15. 15.

    No. 8 Woodrow Wilson (1918) Wilson’s Fourteen Points http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/wilson14.asp. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  16. 16.

    Castellino (2000), p. 13; Hannum (1996), p. 30.

  17. 17.

    For a more general view on this see Hannum (1996), p. 32.

  18. 18.

    See Sect. 7.1.2.

  19. 19.

    Ádám (2004), p. 227.

  20. 20.

    Whelan (1994), p. 100.

  21. 21.

    Murray (1922), p. 8.

  22. 22.

    Whelan (1994), pp. 100–101.

  23. 23.

    Whelan (1994), p. 103.

  24. 24.

    See Sect. 8.2.

  25. 25.

    Both from Merriam-Webster (2014) Principle. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/principle. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  26. 26.

    Kolb (2005), p. 68. Wilson faced more criticism for stepping back from his own beliefs or simply acting on ignorance with consequences for millions of people; see Pomerance (1976), pp. 3–7.

  27. 27.

    Arts. 28 & 36 Treaty of Saint Germain-en-Laye (1919) As published in Australian Treaty Series 1920 No. 3, http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1920/3.html. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  28. 28.

    Hannum (1996), p. 32.

  29. 29.

    Commission of Rapporteurs (1921) The Aaland Islands Question – Report Submitted to the Council of the League of Nations by the Commission of Rapporteurs LoN Doc. B7 21/68/106, p. 27.

  30. 30.

    Principle 2 Atlantic Charter (1941) http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/atlantic.asp. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  31. 31.

    See also Higgins (1994), pp. 111–112.

  32. 32.

    The principle was declared to be customary international law by the ICJ in 1986. See International Court of Justice (1986) Frontier Dispute Judgement Case Concerning the Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), 22 December 1986: I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 554, at pp. 565–567.

  33. 33.

    Higgins (1994), p. 115.

  34. 34.

    Weller (2005), p. 10.

  35. 35.

    International Court of Justice (1995) Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia) Judgment of 30 June 1995, I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 90, para. 29.

  36. 36.

    Koskenniemi (1994), p. 242.

  37. 37.

    Koskenniemi (1994), pp. 242 and 263–264.

  38. 38.

    Principle VIII Final Act of Helsinki (1975) http://www.osce.org/mc/39501?download=true. Accessed 06 May 2014. Koskenniemi points out that it is doubtful whether this statement was meant literally. See Koskenniemi (1994), p. 242. If it was not meant seriously in the Final Act, we are back at image polisher which I refuse to accept. See Sect. 6.2.2.

  39. 39.

    International Court of Justice, Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2010, p. 40, para. 79.

  40. 40.

    International Court of Justice, Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2010, p. 40, para 83.

  41. 41.

    See Dickinson (2012), pp. 369–370.

  42. 42.

    Kirgis (1994), p. 307. For a similar list see also Colak (1996), pp. 31–32.

  43. 43.

    International Court of Justice (1970) Legal Consequences for States of the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding the Security Council resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, 21-06-1971, I.C.J. Reports 1971, 16, Declaration of President Sir Muhammad Zafrulla Khan, p. 63.

  44. 44.

    Senaratne (2013a), p. 477.

  45. 45.

    See for example the safeguard on self-determination in the Friendly Relations Declaration, art. 2 (4) UNC, principle IV of the General Assembly (1970) Friendly Relations Declaration UN Doc. A/RES/2625 (XXV).

  46. 46.

    Para. 11 General Assembly (1960) Principles Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an Obligation Exists to Transmit Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter UN Doc. A/RES/1541 (XV).

  47. 47.

    Para. 6 General Assembly (1960) Principles Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an Obligation Exists to Transmit Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter UN Doc. A/RES/1541 (XV). See also art. 1 (2) VDPA.

  48. 48.

    Principle VI General Assembly (1960) Principles Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an Obligation Exists to Transmit Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter UN Doc. A/RES/1541 (XV).

  49. 49.

    Principle IV General Assembly (1960) Principles Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an Obligation Exists to Transmit Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter UN Doc. A/RES/1541 (XV).

  50. 50.

    Portugal is an exception on this point.

  51. 51.

    Klabbers (2006), p. 190.

  52. 52.

    See for example East Timor and Kosovo.

  53. 53.

    Franck (1995), p. 148.

  54. 54.

    Commission of Rapporteurs (1921) The Aaland Islands Question – Report Submitted to the Council of the League of Nations by the Commission of Rapporteurs LoN Doc. B7 21/68/106, p. 28.

  55. 55.

    Para. 122 Reference re Secession of Quebec. (1998) [2 S.C.R. 217], Ref Type: Case.

  56. 56.

    Principle 5, para. 4 FRD.

  57. 57.

    Art. 1 (2) of the Final Act of Vienna (1815) As published in British and Foreign State Papers 1814–1815, Vol. II, James Ridgway, London, 1839, pp. 7–56; Pernthaler (2006), p. 24.

  58. 58.

    Franck (1990, 1992).

  59. 59.

    Lorimer (1883), pp. 162–168.

  60. 60.

    Epps (1997), p. 438. Franck speaks not only of participation but directly of a right to democratic governance which consists of the three components self-determination, freedom of expression and electoral rights. See Franck (1992), especially pp. 63–77 and 79.

  61. 61.

    See for example Principle IX in General Assembly (1960) Principles Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an Obligation Exists to Transmit Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter UN Doc. A/RES/1541 (XV).

  62. 62.

    Kolodner (1994), p. 163.

  63. 63.

    It is also argued that self-determination can be held up to external standards, meaning self-determination only happens at the price of observing other human rights. Summers (2004), p. 337.

  64. 64.

    The Treaty speaks of religious autonomy; see art. VIII Convention of 1881 for the Settlement of the Frontier Between Greece and Turkey as cited in Thornberry (1991), p. 25.

  65. 65.

    Wiberg (2005), p. 182.

  66. 66.

    Castellino (2000), p. 50.

  67. 67.

    Fink (1998), p. 261.

  68. 68.

    Wiberg (2005), p. 177.

  69. 69.

    Hannum (1996), p. 4. See also Loper (2011), pp. 32–33.

  70. 70.

    Art. 11 Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (1993) Recommendation 1201 (1993) on an Additional Protocol on the Rights of Minorities to the European Convention on Human Rights CoE Doc. PACE Rec. 1201 (1993).

  71. 71.

    Even though it was regarded an important tool during decolonization (both colonies, non-self-governing and trust territories), it was not applied consistently. See the account on plebiscites in Sureda (1973), pp. 294–306.

  72. 72.

    Colak (1996), p. 56. Colak also notes that plebiscites can be manipulated. See pp. 57–58.

  73. 73.

    Arts. 109–114 Treaty of Versailles (1919) As published in British and Foreign State Papers 1919, Vol. CXII, His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, 1922. The Peace of Prague of 1866 already included a plebiscite in the region. The paragraph was officially abolished by Austria in 1879. After World War I, Danish politicians called for implementation of paragraph V of the Prague Peace. See Frandsen (1994), pp. 88–89; Rasmussen (2009), pp. 84–85.

  74. 74.

    Wambaugh (1920), p. 1.

  75. 75.

    Art. 29 Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland (1949) http://dejure.org/gesetze/GG. Accessed 03 June 2010.

  76. 76.

    Koskenniemi (1994), p. 249.

  77. 77.

    Koskenniemi (1994), pp. 249–251.

  78. 78.

    Koskenniemi (1994), p. 257.

  79. 79.

    For a similar categorization see Freeman (1999), pp. 359–360. Freeman uses the term ‘remedial self-determination’ for what Koskenniemi calls the classic theory. Koskenniemi’s romantic theory is termed ‘voluntarist self-determination’ by Freeman.

  80. 80.

    Whelan (1994), p. 99.

  81. 81.

    Committee of Jurists (1920) Report of the International Committee of Jurists Entrusted by the Council of the League of Nations with the Task of Giving an Advisory Opinion upon the Legal Aspects of the Aaland Islands Question, Official Journal, Supplement No. 3, pp. 3–19, at p. 12.

  82. 82.

    Higgins (1994), p. 120. See also Heintze (2004), p. 295.

  83. 83.

    International Court of Justice (1975) Western Sahara Advisory Opinion of 16 October 1975: I.C.J. Reports 1975, pp. 12, para. 70.

  84. 84.

    Hannum (1993), p. 23.

  85. 85.

    Franck (1995), p. 154.

  86. 86.

    No. 2 General Assembly (1960) Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples UN Doc. A/RES/1514 (XV); art. 1 ICCPR; art. 1 ICESCR; principle 5 (1) FRD.

  87. 87.

    General Assembly (1960) Principles Which Should Guide Members in Determining Whether or not an Obligation Exists to Transmit Information Called for under Article 73 e of the Charter UN Doc. A/RES/1541 (XV). This arguably shows a bias towards independence in decolonization.

  88. 88.

    See Cass (1992), pp. 26–27.

  89. 89.

    Original italics. Emerson, R., ‘Self-Determination in the Era of Decolonization’, 9 (1964) Occasional Papers in International Affairs, 64 as quoted in: Freeman (1999), p. 356. Hurst Hannum argues in favour of a principle to self-determination and in favour of a very limited right to self-determination. See Hannum (1996), pp. 44–49.

  90. 90.

    Chodosh (1991).

  91. 91.

    Chodosh (1991), pp. 95–96. Chodosh notes that there is no definition of what constitutes ‘general’ practice or ‘general’ opinio iuris; p. 119.

  92. 92.

    Kirgis (1987), Roberts (2001), Beckett (2001), and Weil (1983).

  93. 93.

    Whelan (1994), p. 103.

  94. 94.

    Whelan (1994), p. 106.

  95. 95.

    Castellino (2000), p. 22.

  96. 96.

    Preamble and no 7, General Assembly (1960) Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples UN Doc. A/RES/1514 (XV).

  97. 97.

    Castellino (2000), p. 37.

  98. 98.

    See Sect. 3.2.3.

  99. 99.

    Nanda (1997), p. 450.

  100. 100.

    Koskenniemi (1994), p. 242. See also Hannum (1993), p. 12 for a similar timeframe as Koskenniemi’s.

  101. 101.

    Pomerance (1982), pp. 63–72; paras. 70–78 Héctor Gros Espiell (1980) The Right to Self-Determination – Implementation of United Nations Resolutions UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1.

  102. 102.

    For treaties see the UN Charter and the two Human Rights Covenants. The FRD codified existing international law. See also Cassese (1995), p. 159.

  103. 103.

    Colak (1996), p. 33.

  104. 104.

    See also Moris (1997), p. 219.

  105. 105.

    Koskenniemi (1994), p. 245.

  106. 106.

    Murray (1922), p. 9.

  107. 107.

    Koskenniemi (1994), pp. 264–265.

  108. 108.

    Margalit and Raz (1990), p. 443.

  109. 109.

    For more on participation see Sect. 10.4.

  110. 110.

    Original italics. Higgins (1994), p. 124.

  111. 111.

    See Sect. 8.2.

  112. 112.

    Epps (1997), p. 442.

  113. 113.

    Epps (1997), p. 441. This is a form of what Freeman has called the ‘remedial theory’ of self-determination. Secession is a right of last resort. See Freeman (1999), pp. 359–360.

  114. 114.

    Epps (1997), p. 442. An unconditional right to secession falls under Freeman’s category of the ‘voluntarist theory’ of self-determination. This is based on the will of each individual. There is no limit to what individuals can decide; if a majority decides to secede from a state—so be it. One of the few conditions attached is that the new entity must support liberal values. See Freeman (1999), p. 360.

  115. 115.

    Oloka-Onyanog (1999), p. 169.

  116. 116.

    Oloka-Onyanog (1999), pp. 170–171.

  117. 117.

    Oloka-Onyanog (1999), pp. 171–175.

  118. 118.

    Para. 5, Human Rights Committee (1984) General Comment No. 12: The Right to Self-Determination (Art. 1) UN Doc. CCPR General Comment No. 12. A UN report on the right to self-determination also stresses the power over one’s own natural resources as an important factor of economic self-determination. See paras. 136–149 Héctor Gros Espiell (1980) The Right to Self-Determination – Implementation of United Nations Resolutions UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1.

  119. 119.

    General Assembly (1974) Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States UN Doc. A/RES/3281 (XXIX).

  120. 120.

    Paiva (1977), p. 329.

  121. 121.

    ‘Objectives’ Part II, General Assembly (1969) Declaration on Social Progress and Development UN Doc. A/RES/2542 (XXIV).

  122. 122.

    Paiva (1977), pp. 330–331.

  123. 123.

    Estes (1996), p. 121.

  124. 124.

    Estes (1996), p. 123. See the full list of all basic indicators, pp. 122–123.

  125. 125.

    Para. 2 General Assembly (1986) Proclamation of the World Decade for Cultural Development UN Doc. A/41/187.

  126. 126.

    See for example General Assembly (1991) World Commission on Culture and Development UN Doc. A/46/158; General Assembly (1991) World Commission on Culture and Development UN Doc. A/46/158; General Assembly (1986) Proclamation of the World Decade for Cultural Development UN Doc. A/41/187.

  127. 127.

    World Commission on Culture and Development (1995) Our Creative Diversity UNESDOC CLT-96/WS-6, p. 16.

  128. 128.

    World Commission on Culture and Development (1995) Our Creative Diversity UNESDOC CLT-96/WS-6, p. 24.

  129. 129.

    Council of Europe (2010) Compendium: Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe www.culturalpolicies.net. Accessed 06 May 2014, Chapter on Denmark.

  130. 130.

    Bekendtgørelse om Fremme af det Tyske Mindretal i Sønderjyllands Repræsentation m.v. i Haderslevs, Sønderborg, Tønder og Aabenraa Kommuner (2005) Bek. nr 869 af 16/09/2005.

  131. 131.

    Seidl-Hohenveldern (1997), recital 1577. See also Harris (1998), p. 113. See also Crawford J (2007), pp. 91–93; Pomerance (1982), p. 3.

  132. 132.

    Nanda (1997), p. 447.

  133. 133.

    Whelan (1994), pp. 102 and 105.

  134. 134.

    Hannum (1993), p. 6.

  135. 135.

    Commission of Rapporteurs (1921) The Aaland Islands Question – Report Submitted to the Council of the League of Nations by the Commission of Rapporteurs LoN Doc. B7 21/68/106, p. 28.

  136. 136.

    Commission of Rapporteurs (1921) The Aaland Islands Question – Report Submitted to the Council of the League of Nations by the Commission of Rapporteurs LoN Doc. B7 21/68/106, p. 34.

  137. 137.

    Commission of Rapporteurs (1921) The Aaland Islands Question – Report Submitted to the Council of the League of Nations by the Commission of Rapporteurs LoN Doc. B7 21/68/106, p. 29.

  138. 138.

    For the instability argument see Kirgis (1994), p. 308.

  139. 139.

    Para. 6 African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1995) Katangese People’s Congress v. Zaire ACHPR Doc. Communication 75/92 (1995).

  140. 140.

    Weller (2005), p. 10.

  141. 141.

    See for example Castellino and Gilbert (2003), p. 169.

  142. 142.

    There are scholars who recognize a certain overlap between minorities and self-determination. However, there are not many of them. See Weller (2005), p. 6.

  143. 143.

    See Sect. 7.2.1.

  144. 144.

    See Klabbers (2006), pp. 204–205.

  145. 145.

    Para. 19 Working Group on Minorities (2005) Commentary of the Working Group on Minorities to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/AC.5/2005/2.

  146. 146.

    General Assembly (1991) The Situation of Democracy and Human Rights in Haiti UN Doc. A/46/L.8/Rev.1.

  147. 147.

    Colak (1996), p. 19.

  148. 148.

    Colak (1996), p. 20.

  149. 149.

    Colak (1996), p. 21.

  150. 150.

    Hannum (1996), p. 35.

  151. 151.

    Valentine (2004), p. 453.

  152. 152.

    Krasner (1999), p. 98.

  153. 153.

    Section D General Assembly (1950) Draft International Covenant on Human Rights and Measures of Implementation: Future Work of the Commission on Human Rights UN Doc. A/RES/421 (V).

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  1. Department of Law, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark

    Ulrike Barten

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Barten, U. (2015). Understanding Self-Determination. In: Minorities, Minority Rights and Internal Self-Determination. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08876-1_9

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