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Minority Rights

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Minorities, Minority Rights and Internal Self-Determination

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Abstract

Minority rights are usually spoken of as human rights. The aim of both human rights and minority rights is protection of people. Once, they were seen as alternatives to each other and the group aspect of minorities clashed with the idea of individual human rights. Does it, then, make sense to place minorities in a human rights context? Yes, it does; the argument follows below.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    At the United Nations, all minority bodies and positions are structurally placed under the Human Rights Council. Art. 27 ICCPR on minority rights is included in a human rights treaty. The Framework Convention’s art. 1 explicitly states that the protection of the minorities and their members covered by the Convention form an integral part of human rights protection. The Language Charter accepts in art. 4 (1) the superiority of the European Convention on Human Rights.

  2. 2.

    Krasner (1999), pp. 76–77.

  3. 3.

    Other religions such as Calvinists, Anabaptist or other reformists groups were not protected under the Peace of Augsburg. See § 17, Peace of Augsburg (1555) http://www.lwl.org/westfaelische-geschichte/portal/Internet/ku.php?tab=que&ID=739. Accessed 29 May 2010.

  4. 4.

    For a more detailed account of the reasons for the outbreak of the Thirty Years War, see: Asch (1997), ch. 1.

  5. 5.

    The Protestant and Catholic sides refused to meet, so the Holy Roman Emperor met with France and its Catholic allies in Münster and for negotiations with Sweden and its Protestant allies in Osnabrück.

  6. 6.

    Art. VII (34) Peace of Westphalia – Osnabrück (1648) http://www.pax-westphalica.de/ipmipo/pdf/o_1732en-treatys.pdf. Accessed 29 May 2010; Art VII (35) Peace of Westphalia – Osnabrück (1648) http://www.pax-westphalica.de/ipmipo/pdf/o_1732en-treatys.pdf. Accessed 29 May 2010.

  7. 7.

    See articles V with 58 sub-clauses and VII of the Peace of Westphalia – Osnabrück (1648) http://www.pax-westphalica.de/ipmipo/pdf/o_1732en-treatys.pdf. Accessed 06 May 2014, art. VII (1) Peace of Westphalia – Osnabrück (1648) http://www.pax-westphalica.de/ipmipo/pdf/o_1732en-treatys.pdf. Accessed 29 May 2010 and art. VII (2) Peace of Westphalia – Osnabrück (1648) http://www.pax-westphalica.de/ipmipo/pdf/o_1732en-treatys.pdf. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  8. 8.

    For a list of treaties see Krasner (1999), p. 81.

  9. 9.

    See art. II, Dutch Treaty at Vienna (1815) As published in British and Foreign State Papers 1814–1815, Vol. II, James Ridgway, London, 1839, pp. 136–142; art. 1 Final Act of Vienna (1815) As published in British and Foreign State Papers 1814–1815, Vol. II, James Ridgway, London, 1839, pp. 7–56.; art. IX Treaty of Paris (1856) As published in Hurst, Michael (Ed.), Key Treaties for the Great Powers 1814–1914, Vol. I 1814–1870, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972, 317–328; art. IV of the Treaty on Ionian Islands (1815) As published in 12 (1918) American Journal of International Law, Official Documents, Supplement, pp. 79–85; art. 4 Berlin Treaty (1878) As published in Hurst, Michael (Ed.), Key Treaties for the Great Powers 1814–1914, Vol. II, David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1972, pp. 551–577. See also Hudson (1976), pp. 220–221; Fink (1996), p. 274.

  10. 10.

    For a detailed account on a never realized joint protest of the Great Powers against the treatment of the Jews in Romania that breached the Treaty of Berlin from 1878 see Hudson (1976), pp. 220–221.

  11. 11.

    Hudson (1976), pp. 204–230.

  12. 12.

    Fink (1996), p. 279; see also Fink (1995), p. 199.

  13. 13.

    In total, 14 states signed treaties or declarations relating to minorities. Treaty provisions were signed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. Declarations as a condition for membership of the League of Nations were made by Finland, Albania, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia.

  14. 14.

    Fink (1996), p. 274.

  15. 15.

    See art. 12 (1) Polish Minority Treaty (1919) As published in British and Foreign State Papers 1919, Vol. CXII, 225–243.

  16. 16.

    For a detailed description of the negotiations and the drafting process, see Viefhaus (1960), pp. 152–173 and 189–209.

  17. 17.

    Fink (1996), p. 279.

  18. 18.

    Fink (1998), p. 272.

  19. 19.

    Fink (1996), p. 280; see also Ádám (2004), p. 241; Viefhaus (1960), pp. 198–200; Hudson (1976), p. 213. Hudson notes the positive exceptions at p. 215.

  20. 20.

    de Azcárate (1945), p. 14. For the same argument see Raitz von Frentz (1999), p. 87.

  21. 21.

    Preamble Explanatory Report to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995) As published in Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities – Collected Texts, 4th ed., Council of Europe, 2007, pp. 17–35, Strasbourg.

  22. 22.

    Hudson (1976), p. 222.

  23. 23.

    There had even been the proposal that once the Permanent Court of International Justice was set up, every Polish national and all national groups should be allowed to appeal directly to the court. See Viefhaus (1960), p. 195.

  24. 24.

    For a detailed account of the complaint procedure and its adjustments over the years see Roucek (1929); and Bagley (1950), pp. 65–96.

  25. 25.

    de Azcárate (1945), p. 97.

  26. 26.

    Bagley (1950), pp. 88–89.

  27. 27.

    Fink (1995), p. 200.

  28. 28.

    Fink (1998), p. 274.

  29. 29.

    Raitz von Frentz (1999), p. 90.

  30. 30.

    For more details see Fink (1995), pp. 201–202.

  31. 31.

    Fink (1995), p. 200.

  32. 32.

    Raitz von Frentz (1999), p. 113.

  33. 33.

    Raitz von Frentz (1999), p. 115.

  34. 34.

    Raitz von Frentz (1999), pp. 88–89.

  35. 35.

    Minutes of the third Assembly as quoted in Bagley (1950), p. 99.

  36. 36.

    Fink (1995), p. 201; Bagley (1950), p. 98.

  37. 37.

    Bagley (1950), pp. 98–99.

  38. 38.

    Weisbrod (1993), p. 371.

  39. 39.

    For a deeper analysis of the protection of minority in the League of Nations and its positive and negative sides see Bagley (1950), pp. 97–132.

  40. 40.

    de Azcárate (1945), p. 101.

  41. 41.

    For a thorough discussion on advantages and disadvantages of hard and soft law see Abbott and Snidal (2000), pp. 424–450.

  42. 42.

    Fink (1998), p. 258.

  43. 43.

    Ambrosius (1998), p. 76.

  44. 44.

    Ádám (2004), pp. 227 and 240.

  45. 45.

    ‘Poland agrees that the stipulations in the foregoing Articles, so far as they affect persons belonging to racial, religious or linguistic minorities, constitute obligations of international concern and shall be placed under the guarantee of the League of Nations.’ See art. 12 Polish Minority Treaty (1919) As published in British and Foreign State Papers 1919, Vol. CXII, 225–243.

  46. 46.

    Fink (1996), p. 285.

  47. 47.

    There are countless discussions on why the League of Nations failed. For an account on the existence of the League of Nations see Northedge (1986). Northedge also lays out the fundamentally different approach of the United Nations that was regarded necessary in order to avoid the weaknesses of the League of Nations. For a critically positive appraisal of the League of Nations see for example Joyce (1978). Rodley has pointed out that the minority system under the League never had a chance. Rodley (1995), p. 48.

  48. 48.

    Symonides, J (1993): A Protective Framework – International Rules that Protect Minorities’ Rights, UNESCO Courier.

  49. 49.

    For more on this see Weisbrod (1993), p. 402; Wirsing (1981), p. 165.

  50. 50.

    In 1999, the name was changed into Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights.

  51. 51.

    Para. 2 Economic and Social Council (1967) Reports of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities UN Doc. ECOSOC Res. 1240 (XLII).

  52. 52.

    Dalton (1994), p. 100.

  53. 53.

    Hungary-Romania: Treaty on Understanding, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness (1996) As published in 36 (1997) International Legal Materials, 340–353.

  54. 54.

    Gilbert (2005), p. 141 quoting Thornberry. Along similar lines, the Framework Convention does not accept traditions that are contrary to national law or international standards. See para. 44 Explanatory Report to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995) As published in Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities – Collected Texts, 4th ed., Council of Europe, 2007, pp. 17–35, Strasbourg.

  55. 55.

    Emphasis added. Oloka-Onyanog (1999), pp. 183–184.

  56. 56.

    Sandra Lovelace, an ethnic Indian in Canada, lost this status when she married a non-Indian. She could not regain this status after her divorce. The question of Canada’s obligations in relation to art. 27 ICCPR vs. The Indian Act was put before the Human Rights Committee. The Committee held that Lovelace should be regarded as a member of the minority as defined by art. 27 ICCPR and therefore had to have the possibility to return to the reserve in order to enjoy her minority rights ‘in community with the other members’, as it is stated in art. 27 ICCPR. See Human Rights Committee (1981) Communication No. 24/1977, Sandra Lovelace v Canada UN Doc. CCPR/C/13/D/24/1977 for further details.

    A different case presents itself in the UK, where arranged marriages in minority groups are accepted. Here, the individual’s rights to free choice is limited by an overriding group concern. See art. 16 (2) Dealing With Cases of Forced Marriage – Guidance for Educational Professionals (2005) Foreign & Commonwealth Office. http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/FCO%2075263.pdf. Accessed 02 June 2010.

  57. 57.

    In this case, the Grand Captain of the Mikmaq tribal society claimed a violation of the right to self-determination on behalf of his tribal society. When investigating the standing of the Grand Captain, the Grand Chief of the Grand Council spoke against the Grand Captain’s standing and the Grand Council never authorized the Grand Captain to represent the tribal society. See Human Rights Committee (1984) Communication 78/1980: The Mikmaq Tribal Society v. Canada UN Doc Supp. No. 40 (A/39/40).

  58. 58.

    Andreescu (2007), p. 164.

  59. 59.

    Lerner (2003), pp. 39–41.

  60. 60.

    Gilbert (2005), p. 150.

  61. 61.

    ILO Convention No. 169 Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (1989) ILO Doc http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?C169. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  62. 62.

    General Assembly (2007) UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples UN Doc. A/RES/61/295.

  63. 63.

    Para. 2 Erika-Irene Daes and Asbjørn Eide (2000) Working Paper on the Relationship and Distinction Between the Rights of Persons Belonging to Minorities and Those of Indigenous Peoples UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/10.

  64. 64.

    The Danish minority has a confirmed seat in the Schleswig-Holstein Landtag, the state parliament. This seat is guaranteed and not dependent on the election result. Further seats are, of course, allowed. The minority competes on equal footing with all other parties for the seats in parliament.

  65. 65.

    Wright (1996), p. 197.

  66. 66.

    In favour of collective human rights: see Freeman (1995); Köchler (2001), p. 139; van Boven (1982), p. 55; for a detailed examination of what can constitute collective rights see also Andreescu (2007), pp. 164–168.

  67. 67.

    Valentine (2004), p. 447. The opposite argument exists also: collective rights support peace and stability. See Zoltani and Koszorus (1996), pp. 137–140.

  68. 68.

    Para. 37 Explanatory Report to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995) As published in Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities – Collected Texts, 4th ed., Council of Europe, 2007, pp. 17–35, Strasbourg.

  69. 69.

    This is occasionally disputed. See de George (1991), pp. 1–7.

  70. 70.

    Para. 57 Héctor Gros Espiell (1980) The Right to Self-Determination – Implementation of United Nations Resolutions UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/405/Rev.1.

  71. 71.

    See art. 2 UDHR.

  72. 72.

    For more on Rawls see Sect. 4.3.

  73. 73.

    For the same argument see para. 241 Francesco Capotorti (1991) Study on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, United Nations, New York, 1991.

  74. 74.

    Para. 34 Erika-Irene Daes and Asbjørn Eide (2000) Working Paper on the Relationship and Distinction Between the Rights of Persons Belonging to Minorities and Those of Indigenous Peoples UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/10.

  75. 75.

    The term ‘one’s own language’ refers to the language of the minority one belongs to. The minority can be the mother tongue but often members of minorities are bilingual, speaking the official state language and the minority language.

  76. 76.

    See Sect. 3.1.1.

  77. 77.

    Simon (1997).

  78. 78.

    Gilbert (2005), p. 154.

  79. 79.

    The question is, whether they in this case consider themselves members of a minority. If this is denied, they are per definition no members of the minority, as only free will can secure membership in a minority.

  80. 80.

    Para. 8 Erika-Irene Daes and Asbjørn Eide (2000) Working Paper on the Relationship and Distinction Between the Rights of Persons Belonging to Minorities and Those of Indigenous Peoples UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/10.

  81. 81.

    Anghie (2006), p. 457.

  82. 82.

    Simon (1997), p. 511.

  83. 83.

    Preamble Explanatory Report to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995) As published in Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities – Collected Texts, 4th ed., Council of Europe, 2007, pp. 17–35, Strasbourg.

  84. 84.

    CSCE (1992) Helsinki Document 1992: The Challenges of Change OSCE Doc. http://www.osce.org/mc/39530?download=true. Accessed 06 May 2014.

  85. 85.

    de Azcárate (1945), p. 17.

  86. 86.

    Preamble Explanatory Report to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (1995) As published in Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities – Collected Texts, 4th ed., Council of Europe, 2007, pp. 17–35, Strasbourg.

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    Ulrike Barten

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Barten, U. (2015). Minority Rights. In: Minorities, Minority Rights and Internal Self-Determination. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-08876-1_7

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