Advertisement

The Psychological Contracts of Older Employees

Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

Many organizations are currently facing an aging workforce and have therefore called for researchers to examine how older employees can be optimally motivated and retained. To this end, we believe it is essential to understand what older employees expect from their organization. We therefore introduce the psychological contract—describing the mutual obligations between employee and employer—and review the literature on older employees’ psychological contracts. In addition, we perform a meta-analysis to shed additional light on the type of obligations that older employees perceive in their psychological contract. We conclude that future studies should focus on unraveling the mechanisms—such as future time perspective and changing goals and values—that create differences between older and younger employees in the content of and the reactions to the psychological contract. Practitioners are advised to monitor changes in these underlying mechanisms as employees grow older, and to implement age-conscious Human Resource policies accordingly in order to manage older employees’ psychological contracts.

Keywords

Organizational Commitment Psychological Contract Relational Contract Mutual Obligation Psychological Contract Breach 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References3

  1. Bajor, J. K., & Baltes, B. B. (2003). The relationship between selection optimization with compensation, conscientiousness, motivation, and performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(3), 347–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Bal, P. M., De Lange, A. H., Jansen, P. G. W., & Van Der Velde, M. E. G. (2008). Psychological contract breach and job attitudes: A meta-analysis of age as a moderator. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(1), 143–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. *Bal, P. M., De Lange, A. H., Zacher, H., & Van der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2013). A lifespan perspective on psychological contracts and their relations with organizational commitment. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(3), 279–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Bal, P. M., Jansen, P. G. W., Van der Velde, M. E. G., De Lange, A. H., & Rousseau, D. (2010). The role of future time perspective in psychological contracts: A study among older workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(3), 474–486.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. *Bal, P. M., & Kooij, D. (2011). The relations between work centrality, psychological contracts, and job attitudes: The influence of age. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(4), 497–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. *Bal, P. M., Kooij, D. T. A. M., & De Jong, S. B. (2013). How do developmental and accommodative HRM enhance employee engagement and commitment? The role of psychological contract and SOC strategies. Journal of Management Studies, 50(4), 545–572.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Blau, P. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  8. Carstensen, L. L., & Löckenhoff, C. E. (2004). Socioemotional selectivity theory, aging, and health: The increasingly delicate balance between regulating emotions and making tough choices. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1395–1424.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. *Castanheira, F., & Chambel, M. J. (2009). Emotion work, psychological contract, and their relationship with burnout. In E. Morin, N. Ramalho, J. Neves, & A. Savoie (eds.), New research trends in effectiveness, health, and work: A Criteos scientific and professional account (pp. 101–120). Montreal: Criteos.Google Scholar
  10. Cennamo, L., & Gardner, D. (2008). Generational differences in work values, outcomes and person-organisation values fit. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(8), 891–906.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. *Chambel, M. J., & Alcover, C.-M. (2011). The psychological contract of call-centre workers: Employment conditions, satisfaction and civic virtue behaviours. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 32(1), 115–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. *Chambel, M. J., & Castanheira, F. (2006). Different temporary work status, different behaviors in organization. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(3), 351–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. *Cohen, A. (2011). Values and psychological contracts in their relationship to commitment in the workplace. Career Development International, 16(7), 646–667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Conway, N., & Briner, R. B. (2009). Fifty years of psychological contract research: What do we know and what are the main challenges? International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 21, 71–131.Google Scholar
  15. *Coyle-Shapiro, J., & Kessler, I. (2000). Consequences of the psychological contract for the employment relationship: A large scale survey. Journal of Management Studies, 37(7), 903–930.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. *Dabos, G. E., & Rousseau, D. (2004). Mutuality and reciprocity in the psychological contracts of employees and employers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 52–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. *De Cuyper, N., & De Witte, H. (2007). Job insecurity in temporary versus permanent workers: Associations with attitudes, well-being, and behaviour. Work & Stress, 21(1), 65–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. De Cuyper, N., Rigotti, T., De Witte, H., & Mohr, G. (2008). Balancing psychological contracts: Validation of a typology. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(4), 543–561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. De Lange, A., Bal, P., Van der Heijden, B., De Jong, N., & Schaufeli, W. (2011). When I’m 64: Psychological contract breach, work motivation and the moderating roles of future time perspective and regulatory focus. Work & Stress, 25(4), 338–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. De Vos, A., Buyens, D., & Schalk, R. (2003). Psychological contract development during organizational socialization: Adaptation to reality and the role of reciprocity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(5), 537–559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. De Vos, A., Buyens, D., & Schalk, R. (2005). Making sense of a new employment relationship: Psychological contract-related information seeking and the role of work values and locus of control. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13(1), 41–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. *Eatough, E. M. (2013). Illegitimate tasks and employee well-being: A daily diary study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of South Florida, Tampa, FL.Google Scholar
  23. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1998). Selection, optimization, and compensation as strategies of life management: Correlations with subjective indicators of successful aging. Psychology and Aging, 13(4), 531–543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. *Gardner, D. G., Huang, G., Pierce, J. L., Niu, X., & Lee, C. L. (2010). Organization-based self-esteem: Relationships with psychological contracts and perceived employment opportunities. Academy of Management Best Papers Proceedings, 1, 1–6.Google Scholar
  25. Gouldner, A. W. (1960). The norm of reciprocity: A preliminary statement. American Sociological Review, 25(2), 161–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. *Haq, I. U., Jam, F. A., Azeem, M. U., Ali, M. A., & Fatima, T. (2011). Psychological contract and job outcomes: Mediating role of affective commitment. African Journal of Business Management, 5(19), 7972–7979.Google Scholar
  27. Hess, N., & Jepsen, D. M. (2009). Career stage and generational differences in psychological contracts. Career Development International, 14(3), 261–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. *Ho, V. T., Rousseau, D., & Levesque, L. (2006). Social networks and the psychological contract: Structural holes, cohesive ties, and beliefs regarding employer obligations. Human Relations, 59(4), 459–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Isaksson, K., De Cuyper, N., Oettel, C., & De Witte, H. (2010). The role of the formal employment contract in the range and fulfilment of the psychological contract: Testing a layered model. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19(6), 696–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. *Jamil, A., Raja, U., & Darr, W. (2013). Psychological contract types as moderator in the breach-violation and violation-burnout relationships. Journal of Psychology, 147(5), 491–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29(3), 440–458.Google Scholar
  32. Kanfer, R., Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2013). Goals and motivation related to work in later adulthood: An organizing framework. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(3), 253–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Kooij, D. T. A. M., De Lange, A., Jansen, P. G. W., & Dikkers, J. (2008). Older workers’ motivation to continue to work: Five meanings of age: A conceptual review. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(4), 364–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Kooij, D. T. A. M., De Lange, A. H., Jansen, P. G. W., Kanfer, R., & Dikkers, J. E. (2011). Age and work-related motives: Results of a meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32(2), 197–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Lee, C., Liu, J., Rousseau, D. M., Hui, C., & Chen, Z. X. (2011). Inducements, contributions, and fulfillment in new employee psychological contracts. Human Resource Management, 50(2), 201–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Lub, X., Bijvank, M. N., Bal, P. M., Blomme, R., & Schalk, R. (2012). Different or alike?: Exploring the psychological contract and commitment of different generations of hospitality workers. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(4), 553–573.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. *Lub, X., Blomme, R., & Bal, P. (2011). Psychological contract and organizational citizenship behavior: A new deal for new generations? Advances in Hospitality and Leisure, 7, 109–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. *Luksyte, A., Spitzmueller, C., & Maynard, D. C. (2011). Why do overqualified incumbents deviate? Examining multiple mediators. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 279–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Millward, L. J., & Hopkins, L. J. (1998). Psychological contracts, organizational and job commitment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(16), 1530–1556.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Morrison, E., & Robinson, S. (1997). When employees feel betrayed: A model of how psychological contract violation develops. Academy of Management Review, 22(1), 226–256.Google Scholar
  41. Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2008). Can you get a better deal elsewhere? The effects of psychological contract replicability on organizational commitment over time. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73(2), 268–277.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2009). Age, work experience, and the psychological contract. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 1053–1075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. *Purvis, L. J., & Cropley, M. (2003). The psychological contracts of National Health Service nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 11(2), 107–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. *Raja, U., Johns, G., & Bilgrami, S. (2011). Negative consequences of felt violations: The deeper the relationship, the stronger the reaction. Applied Psychology, 60(3), 397–420.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. *Raja, U., Johns, G., & Ntalianis, F. (2004). The impact of personality on psychological contracts. Academy of Management Journal, 47(3), 350–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. *Ravlin, E. C., Liao, Y., Morrell, D. L., Au, K., & Thomas, D. C. (2012). Collectivist orientation and the psychological contract: Mediating effects of creditor exchange ideology. Journal of International Business Studies, 43(8), 772–782.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. *Richard, O. C., McMillan-Capehart, A., Bhuian, S. N., & Taylor, E. C. (2009). Antecedents and consequences of psychological contracts: Does organizational culture really matter? Journal of Business Research, 62(8), 818–825.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Rousseau, D. (1989). Psychological and implied contracts in organizations. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2(2), 121–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Rousseau, D. (1990). New hire perceptions of their own and their employer’s obligations: A study of psychological contracts. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11(5), 389–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Rousseau, D. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
  51. Rousseau, D. (2001). Schema, promise and mutuality: The building blocks of the psychological contract. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74(4), 511–541.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Rousseau, D., & Tijoriwala, S. A. (1998). Assessing psychological contracts: Issues, alternatives and measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(1), 679–695.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Schalk, R. (2004). Changes in the employment relation across time. In J. A.-M. Coyle-Shapiro, L. M. Shore, M. S. Taylor, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), The employment relationship. Examining psychological and contextual perspectives (pp. 284–311). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  54. *Schieven, A. G. (2009). The quality of employment relationships in small organizations: The influence of relational and transactional dominance of psychological contracts and agreement between employee and immediate-manager. Master’s thesis. University of Tilburg, Tilburg, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
  55. *Shih, C.-T., & Chen, S. (2011). The social dilemma perspective on psychological contract fulfilment and organizational citizenship behaviour. Management and Organization Review, 7(1), 125–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Shore, L., & Barksdale, K. (1998). Examining degree of balance and level of obligation in the employment relationship: A social exchange approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19(1), 731–744.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. *Syed, F. (2010). Interactive effects of contract types and organizational justice types on perceived breach and outcomes (Unpublished MS Leading to PhD Dissertation). International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan.Google Scholar
  58. *Uen, J., & Chien, M. S. (2010). The relationships among commitment-based HR systems, psychological contracts, and role behaviors: An empirical study of knowledge workers in Taiwan’s high-tech firms. Asia Pacific Management Review, 15(1), 43–55.Google Scholar
  59. United Nations. (2007). World economic and social survey 2007: Development in an ageing world. New York: United Nations Publication.Google Scholar
  60. Vantilborgh, T., Bidee, J., Pepermans, R., Willems, J., Huybrechts, G., & Jegers, M. (2012). Effects of ideological and relational psychological contract breach and fulfilment on volunteers’ work effort. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, iFirst, 1–14. doi: 10.1080/1359432X.2012.740170.
  61. Vantilborgh, T., Bidee, J., Pepermans, R., Willems, J., Huybrechts, G., & Jegers, M. (2013). From “getting” to “giving”: Exploring age-related differences in perceptions of and reactions to psychological contract balance. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(3), 293–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36(3), 1–48.Google Scholar
  63. Wagner, S., & Rush, M. (2000). Altruistic organizational citizenship behavior: Context, disposition, and age. The Journal of Social Psychology, 140(3), 379–391.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Zacher, H., & Frese, M. (2009). Remaining time and opportunities at work: Relationships between age, work characteristics, and occupational future time perspective. Psychology and Aging, 24(2), 487–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. *Zagenczyk, T. J., Restubog, S. L. D., Kiewitz, C., Kiazad, K., & Tang, R. L. (2011). Psychological contracts as a mediator between Machiavellianism and employee citizenship and deviant behaviors. Journal of Management, early online. doi:  10.1177/0149206311415420.
  66. *Zhao, J., & Chen, L. (2008). Individualism, collectivism, selected personality traits, and psychological contract in employment: A comparative study. Management Research News, 31(4), 289–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Zhao, H., Wayne, S. J., Glibkowski, B. C., & Bravo, J. (2007). The impact of psychological contract breach on work-related outcomes: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 647–680.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Experimental and Applied PsychologyVrije Universiteit BrusselBrusselsBelgium
  2. 2.Department of Organisation StudiesKU LeuvenLeuvenBelgium
  3. 3.Antwerp Management SchoolUniversity of AntwerpAntwerpBelgium
  4. 4.School of ManagementUniversity of BathBathUK

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options