Abstract
This chapter examines the roots of puritan debates on eschatology and hermeneutics by providing an overview of the development of both apocalyptic and hermeneutic thought from the early church to the Reformation. It traces the development of hermeneutical thought and the fluidity and shifting meaning of the “literal sense”, particularly within eschatology. It highlights the development of the analogia fidei (analogy of faith) as a tool for understanding the literal sense and an increasing emphasis on the literal as the “historical” sense of the text into the early modern period. This helped lead to a growing interest in Jews and Judaism in early modern England, with a number of complex ways of viewing contemporary Judaism developing in the period.
The chapter opens by examining ideas of millennialism and Jewish restoration in the early church, before showing how Augustine’s hermeneutics (based on the analogia fidei) condemned millennialism in mainstream Christianity. Yet millennialism and Jewish restoration remained a theme in controversial figures (such as Joachim of Fiore) and heretical movements (such as the Lollards). Turning to the Reformation, the work of the major reformers is shown to have adopted an increasingly historicised hermeneutic, leading to an increased belief in a great end times conversion of the Jews. Promises of restoration were, however, still largely dismissed.
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Notes
- 1.
Nicholas Gibbons, Questions and Disputations Concerning the Holy Scripture (London, 1601), pp. 497–498.
- 2.
See for example, Killeen, Biblical Scholarship, especially pp. 1–64.
- 3.
Zakai, Exile, p. 45.
- 4.
R.P.C. Hanson, Allegory and Event: A Study of the Sources and Significance of Origen’s Interpretation of Scripture (London: SCM, 1959), pp. 13–25.
- 5.
The Epistle of Barnabas XIV.
- 6.
Tertullian, On the Resurrection of the Flesh, Trans. Peter Holmes, in The Anti-Nicene Fathers Vol. II, eds James Donaldson and Alexander Roberts (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968), p. 564.
- 7.
Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, Trans. James Donaldson and Alexander Roberts, in The Anti-Nicene Fathers Vol. I, eds James Donaldson and Alexander Roberts (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), p. 267.
- 8.
Jeremy Cohen, “The Mystery of Israel’s Salvation: Romans 11:25–26 in Patristic and Medieval Exegesis”, Harvard Theological Review 98:3 (July 2005), pp. 247–281.
- 9.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies v.35.1, trans. James Donaldson and Alexander Roberts in The Anti-Nicene Fathers Vol. I, eds James Donaldson and Alexander Roberts (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969), pp. 560–66.
- 10.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies v.34.1.
- 11.
Justin Martyr, Dialogue, p. 239. See also discussion of Irenaeus’ Against Heresies above.
- 12.
Beryl Smalley, Studies in Medieval Thought and Learning: From Abelard to Wyclif (London: Hambledon Press, 1981), p. 122. See also Farrar, History of Interpretation, p. 193.
- 13.
de Lubac, Medieval Exegesis, Volume 1, pp. 90, 211–222; See also Bernard Ramm, Protestant Biblical Interpretation: A Textbook of Hermeneutics (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1970) p. 32. Origen did not find all senses in each passage, but was guided by the context.
- 14.
“Ioυδαιξωσ”. Hanson, Allegory and Event, p. 237.
- 15.
See August Zöllig, Die Inspirationslehre des Origenes (Freiberg: Herder, 1902), p. 108 n1 for a list of phrases used by Origen for the allegorical sense. The Latin translations show this to some extent, where the sense was variously described as the sensus mysticus, Allegoricus, Actior, Spirtalis Intelligentia.
- 16.
Hanson, Allegory and Event, pp. 264–265.
- 17.
Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture: Revelation, ed. William C. Weinrich (Leicester: IVP, 2005), pp. xx–xxi.
- 18.
Paula Fredriksen, “Tyconius and Augustine on Apocalypse” in The Apocalypse in the Middle Ages, eds Richard K., Emmerson and Bernard McGinn (Ithaca and London: Cornell, 1992), p. 26.
- 19.
Fredriksen, “Tyconius”, pp. 26–27.
- 20.
Irena Backus, Reformation Readings of the Apocalypse (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. xii–xiv. Tycnoius’s commentary is lost, but Gennadius of Marseille (d. c. 496) recorded that he had read nothing “in the carnal, but all in a spiritual sense”. See Ancient Christian Commentary, ed. Weinrich p. xxiii.
- 21.
Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, Trans. R.P.H. Green (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 61.
- 22.
Augustine, De Doctrina, pp. 61–63.
- 23.
Augustine, The Sprit and the Letter in Later Works, Trans. John Burnaby (London: SCM Press, 1955), p. 225.
- 24.
Augustine, De Doctrina, p. 141.
- 25.
Augustine, De Doctrina, p. 143.
- 26.
Augustine, De Doctrina, p. 141.
- 27.
Augustine, De Doctrina, p. 71.
- 28.
Augustine, De Doctrina, p. 51.
- 29.
Augustine, De Doctrina, p. 151.
- 30.
Augustine, De Doctrina, pp. 153–155.
- 31.
Tertullian, The Prescription Against Heretics, Trans. Peter Holmes, in Anti-Nicene Fathers Vol. II, pp. 249–50.
- 32.
Augustine, The City of God Against the Pagans, Trans. R.W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 979.
- 33.
Augustine, City of God, pp. 1021–24.
- 34.
Augustine, City of God, pp. 1007–11 His reading here was particularly based on “the lawless one” of 2 Thes. 2:1–12. Augustine was far from the first to broach this subject (see, for example, Irenaeus above) but the influence of City of God was to have a major impact on the acceptance of the idea.
- 35.
Augustine, City of God, pp. 1042–43.
- 36.
Richard Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse (Oxford: Sutton Courtenay Press, 1978), pp. 17–31; Curtis V. Bostock, The Antichrist and the Lollards: Apocalypticism in Late Medieval and Reformation England (Leiden: Brill, 1998), pp. 22–47.
- 37.
de Lubac, Medieval Exegesis Vol. 1, pp. 82–83.
- 38.
This may be in either the sense of the eschatological hope of the individual soul, or the church in general.
- 39.
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae (London: Blackfriars, 1964–73) 1a. 1,10.
- 40.
Aquinas, Summa 1a. 1,10 He directly credits Augustine as the originator of this system.
- 41.
E. Ann Matter, “The Apocalypse in Early Medieval Exegesis” in The Apocalypse in the Middle Ages, eds Richard K. Emmerson and Bernard McGinn (Ithaca and London: Cornell, 1992), pp. 49–50.
- 42.
See Marjorie Reeves’ works, Prophecy in the Later Middle Ages: A Study in Joachimism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969); “English Apocalyptic Thinkers (c. 1540–1620)”, in Storia e Figure Dell’Apocalisse fra ‘500 e ‘600, ed. Roberto Rusconi (Rome: Viella, 1996), pp. 259–273 and Joachim of Fiore and the Prophetic Future (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999) for the English connection. Joachim was particularly popular due to the (perhaps apocryphal) story of his identifying a future pope as Antichrist to Richard the Lionheart. Bullinger noted with pleasure that Joachim “likewise calleth the Pope, Antichrist” (Bullinger, Hundred Sermons, sig. Biiiiv).
- 43.
“For the abbot, the basic or child’s level of understanding scripture pertains to the letter (secundum litteram)”, Delno C. West and Sandra Zimdars-Swartz, Joachim of Fiore: A Study in Perception and History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983), p. 43. Nicholas M. Healy finds Aquinas’ distaste for Joachim to be in part inspired by the abbot’s opposition to the literal sense. See Healy’s “Introduction” in Aquinas on Scripture: An Introduction to his Biblical Commentaries, eds D.A. Keating, T.G, Weinandy, and J.P. Yocum (London: T&T Clark, 2005).
- 44.
Theodore Dwight Bozeman, To Live Ancient Lives: The Primitivist Dimension in Puritanism (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), p. 207.
- 45.
Robert E. Lerner, The Feast of Saint Abraham: Medieval Millenarians and the Jews (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), p. 31.
- 46.
The heretic Rupescissa (1310–1365), for example, saw the conversion of the Jews in 1370 under a new Emperor who would destroy Rome. The Jews would survive and flourish until the end of the world, enduring the onslaught of Gog and Magog, with Jerusalem as the centre of faith and of a new world empire. There is no evidence of his ideas having any great influence. Lerner, Feast, pp. 79–82.
- 47.
Kantik Ghosh, The Wycliffite Heresy: Authority and the Interpretation of Texts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 35.
- 48.
Ghosh, Wycliffite Heresy, p. 42.
- 49.
Bostock, Antichrist, pp. 60–64.
- 50.
Quoted in Bostock, Antichrist, p. 93.
- 51.
Bostock, Antichrist, p. 122.
- 52.
For a summary of recent contributions see Peter Marshall, “(Re)Defining the English Reformation”, Journal of British Studies 48:3 (July 2009), pp. 582–3.
- 53.
Martin Luther, Luther’s Works (St Louis: Concordia and Philadelphia: Fortress, 1955–86) Vol. 27, p. 313. de Lubac claims this view on 2 Cor. 3:6 for Augustine (de Lubac, Medieval Exegesis Vol 2, p. 55), though he does not mention Luther’s view in his discussion. For Luther’s views on “Jerome and his friend Origen” see Martin Luther, The Bondage of the Will Trans. J.I. Packer and O.R. Johnston (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 1957), pp. 240–247 and Luther, Works vol. 39 p. 178.
- 54.
Luther, Works, vol. 36, p. 30.
- 55.
Luther, Bondage, pp. 71–72.
- 56.
Luther, Bondage, p. 71.
- 57.
Luther, Bondage, p. 201.
- 58.
Luther, Works, vol. 39, p. 178.
- 59.
Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse, pp. 43–44. Luther also wrote of the Ottoman Empire as a second branch of antichrist.
- 60.
Luther, Works, vol. 47, pp. 138–139.
- 61.
T.H.L Parker, Calvin’s Old Testament Commentaries (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1986), pp. 83–121. Indeed, the Lutheran Aegidius Hunnius criticised Calvin for adopting a historical reading of certain Old Testament texts rather than reading them as typological references to Christ. See William McKane, “Calvin as an Old Testament Commentator” in Calvin and Hermeneutics, ed. Richard Gamble, pp. 250–60.
- 62.
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, Trans. Ford Lewis Battles, (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960). 3.13.4. Hereafter Inst.
- 63.
Parker, Old Testament, p. 75.
- 64.
Calvin, Inst 2.11.3.
- 65.
John Calvin, A Commentarie Upon the Epistle of Saint Paul to the Romanes (London, 1583), f.156r.
- 66.
Calvin, Inst 1.13.1. Interestingly, this illustration is also found in Origen. See Hanson, Allegory and Event, p. 227.
- 67.
Calvin, Inst 3.18.9.
- 68.
Calvin, Inst 3.21.4.
- 69.
Ford Lewis Battles, “God Was Accommodating Himself to Human Capacity” in Calvin and Hermeneutics, ed. Richard Gamble, p. 21.
- 70.
Calvin, Inst 2.11.13. See Parker, Old Testament, p. 55ff for further discussion of this view.
- 71.
See Backus, Reformation Readings, pp. 70–72; Parker, New Testament, pp. 76–78.
- 72.
“Now their fiction is too childish an error to need or to be worth a refutation…[they] do not realise how much reproach they are casting upon Christ and his Kingdom”. Calvin, Inst 3.15.5.
- 73.
Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium (London: Secker & Warburg, 1957), pp. 272–306; Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse, p. 211, Gribben, Puritan Millennium, pp. 31–32.
- 74.
Gribben, Puritan Millennium, p. 31.
- 75.
William Tyndale, Doctrinal Treatises and Introductions to Different Portions of the Holy Scriptures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1848), p. 307.
- 76.
Andrew Willet, Synopsis Papismi, That is a general view of papistire (London: Felix Kyngston, 1600), sig. B4iiir.
- 77.
William Tyndale, Doctrinal, p. 303.
- 78.
This had been articulated clearly at Trent. For particular English examples see the complaints of English convert to Rome William Alabaster, published along with refutations in Roger Fenton, Answere to William Alablaster (London, 1599) and John Racster, William Alablasters Motives Removed (London, 1598); also the record of the conference between English Jesuit John Hart and John Rainolds, published as The Summe of the Conference…Touching the Head and the Faith of the Church (London, 1584).
- 79.
William Fulke, A Defense of the Sincere and True Translations of the Holie Scriptures into the English Tong (London, 1583), pp. 5–6.
- 80.
John Rainolds, The Summe of the Conference betweene John Rainoldes and John Hart: Touching the Head and the Faith of the Church (London, 1584), p. 82.
- 81.
Willet, Synopsis, p. 34.
- 82.
John Weemes, The Christian Synagogue, Wherein is contained the diverse reading, the right poynting, translation, and collation of scripture with scripture. With the customs of the Hebrewes and Proselytes and of all those nations, with whom they were conversant (London, 1623), p. 228.
- 83.
Rainolds, Summe of the Conference, p. 194.
- 84.
Fenton, Answere, p. 16 misl. 14.
- 85.
For example, see William Perkins, The Arte of Prophecying (London, 1607), pp. 8–17 and Nicholas Byfield, Directions for the Private Reading of the Scriptures (London, 1618), pp. 1–3. In Perkins these divisions can be further broken down into “Greater” or “Lesser” prophetic books. The historical books are: The Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, and Job. The dogmatic are Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. The greater prophetic books are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. The remainder are classed as the “lesser propheticall” books. The books of the New Testament are divided simply along the lines of Gospel/Acts, Pauline Epistles, General Epistles (Including Hebrews), and Revelation.
- 86.
Perkins, Arte, p. 26. Of course he was thinking particularly of using scripture for preaching.
- 87.
Richard Sherry, A Treatise of Schemes of Tropes ([London], 1550), sig. Aiiii[iii]v.
- 88.
Henry Peacham, The Garden of Eloquence, conteyning the figures of grammar and rhetorick (London, 1577), sig. Aiiiir.
- 89.
Peacham, Garden of Eloquence, sig. Biv.
- 90.
Rainolds, Conference, p. 69.
- 91.
Donald McKim, “The Functions of Ramism in William Perkins’ Theology”, Sixteenth Century Journal XVI:4 (Winter 1985), p. 505; Donald McKim, Ramism in William Perkins’ Theology (New York: Peter Lang, 1987), p. 73.
- 92.
Erland Sellberg, “Petrus Ramus”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2006 Edition), ed. Edward N. Zalta, http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2006/entries/ramus/, Section 3.4. Accessed 30/05/08.
- 93.
Walter J. Ong, Ramus, Method and The Decay of Dialogue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958), p. 191; McKim, Ramism in William Perkins, p. 32.
- 94.
Abraham Fraunce, The Lawyers Logike (London, 1588), f. 113r-v.
- 95.
McKim, Ramism in William Perkins, pp. 115–116.
- 96.
Keith L. Sprunger, “Ames, Ramus, and the Method of Puritan Theology”, Harvard Theological Review 59:2 (April 1966), p. 134.
- 97.
Wilbur Samuel Howell, Logic and Rhetoric in England, 1500–1700 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1956) p. 179.
- 98.
Fraunce, Lawyers Logike, sig. 2v.
- 99.
Gordis, Opening Scripture, p. 13.
- 100.
William Perkins, The Whole Treatise of the Cases of Conscience, (London, 1606), pp. 247–248.
- 101.
Perkins, Arte, pp. 31–32. This concept was derived from Augustine, as noted by Knott, Sword of the Spirit, p. 36. Stanley Fish has sarcastically described this approach as “Whenever you find something that doesn’t say what it is supposed to say, decide that it doesn’t mean what it says; and then make it say what it’s supposed to say” Self-Consuming Artifacts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 22.
- 102.
Perkins, Arte, pp. 45–46.
- 103.
Perkins, Arte, pp. 46–47.
- 104.
Quoted in Eliane Glaser, Judaism without Jews: Philosemitism and Christian Polemic in Early Modern England (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007), p. 44.
- 105.
Fulke, A Defense, p. 223.
- 106.
See Harold Fisch, Jerusalem and Albion: The Hebraic Factor in Seventeenth-Century Literature (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964), pp. 44–117; David S. Katz, The Jews in the History of England 1485–1850 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), pp. 107–144; David S. Katz, Philo-Semitism and the Readmission of the Jews to England 1603–1655 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982) pp. 43–88; Peter Toon, ‘The Latter Day Glory’ in The Puritans, The Millennium & The Future of Israel: Puritan Eschatology 1600–1660, ed. Peter Toon (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 1970), pp. 23–26.
- 107.
Hugh Broughton, A Revelation of the Holy Apocalyps (Middelberg, 1610), p. 3.
- 108.
William Symson in Weemes, The Christian Synagogue, sig. A2v.
- 109.
Fulke, A Defense, p. 115.
- 110.
Fulke, A Defense, p. 512.
- 111.
Guibbory, Christian Identity, pp. 15–17.
- 112.
Tyndale, Doctrinal, p. 304.
- 113.
“The predictions of the Jewish prophets are not to be taken literally”. Andrew Willet, De Universali et Novissima Iudaeorum Cocatione Secundum Apertissimam Divi Pauli Prophetiam (Cambridge, 1590), sig. C3r.
- 114.
Willet, Synopsis, p. 34.
- 115.
Nicholas Gibbons, Questions and Disputations Concerning the Holy Scripture (London, 1601), p. 499.
- 116.
Thomas Becon, The Demaundes of Holy Scripture (London, 1577), sig. Eiiiv.
- 117.
John Foxe, A Sermon Preached at the Christening of a Certaine Jew (London, 1578), sig. C1v.
- 118.
Nicholas Byfield, The Patterne of Wholesome Words (London, 1618), p. 349.
- 119.
Andreas Hyperius, The Practis of Preaching (London, 1577), fol.81v.
- 120.
These include Francis Kett (d.1589), who was accused of holding that Christ “is now in his human nature gathering a church here in earth in Judea”, that he would return before the final judgement, and reign as King from Jerusalem, and that there would be two literal resurrections before judgement day. However, Kett’s printed work appears almost completely orthodox. Certainly, the majority of references to “Judah”, “Israel”, and “David” referred allegorically to the church (See The Glorious and Beautiful Garland of Mans Glorification (London, 1585)). Kett was executed in 1589, probably for Arian tendencies. For more on his thought see Dewey D. Wallace Jr., “From Eschatology to Arian Heresy: The Case of Francis Kett (d.1589)”, Harvard Theological Review 67 (1974), pp. 459–473. Other radicals to suggest the idea included Ralph Durden, who styled himself as the new Jewish messiah, and was considered insane (Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse, pp. 188–191). A similarly eccentric interpretation was found in Roger Edwards. He wrote his manuscript work in 1580 and dedicated it to Bishop Aylmer (British Library Ms. Lansdowne 353/3). The work (described by the manuscript editor as “A Phantastic Booke”), though rich in scriptural detail was bizarre – Edwards was imprisoned in the Tower at the time of its composition. His literal reading of the prophets is interesting (for example, see ff. 198v, 199v, 224r), especially in his belief in “Perpetua pax Israelis in terra” (198r) but it is impossible to argue that his little known manuscript work had any influence.
- 121.
Foxe, Sermon, sig. f.iiii[iiii]r.
- 122.
John Bale, The Image of Both Churches (London, 1580), I.142. See also I.96–99.
- 123.
The Geneva Bible: A Facsimile of the 1560 Edition (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), New Testament, p. 75 l.
- 124.
Geneva Bible 1560, Old Testament, p. 287.
- 125.
Foxe, Sermon, sigs. Liiii[iii]r; M1r. See also Weemes, Christian Synagogue, p. 141.
- 126.
Bullinger, Hundred Sermons, sig. 53v. For further examples see John Napier, A Plaine Discoverie of the Whole Revelation of Saint John ([Edinburgh], 1594), p. 120; Foxe, A Sermon, sig. L.iiiiiiiiv, Perkins, “A Fruitfull Dialogue Concerning the end of the World” (1587) in Workes, Vol. III (London, 1631), p. 470.
- 127.
Tyndale, Doctrinal, p. 305.
- 128.
See Firth, Apocalyptic Tradition, pp. 1–110.
- 129.
Bale, Image, sig. Aiiir.
- 130.
Bale, Image, sig. Aiiiir.
- 131.
Bale, Image, III.103–169.
- 132.
Bale, Image, sig. B.iv.
- 133.
Bauckham, Tudor Apocalypse, p. 33; Gribben, Puritan Millennium, pp. 59–86.
- 134.
This is not to question the value of revisionist interpretations of the English reformation, but rather to highlight the prevalence of anti-Catholic thought in apocalyptic works.
- 135.
There were several editions of Foxe’s work. The schema here was first used in his 1570 edition. See Paul Christianson, Reformers and Babylon: English Apocalyptic Visions from the Reformation to the Eve of the Civil War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), pp. 41–45.
- 136.
John Foxe, Actes and Monuments (London, 1596), p. 1.
- 137.
For example, “every good man well to weigh with himself the long tranquillity, the great plenty, the peaceable liberty, which the Lord of his mercy hath bestowed upon this land during all the reign hitherto of this our Sovereign & most happy Queen ELIZABETH…”, Foxe, Actes and Monuments, f. 26r. This theme will be discussed more fully in Chap. 4, particularly in terms of William Haller’s claim that Foxe developed an idea of the elect nation.
- 138.
See Gribben, Puritan Millennium, pp. 71–86 for a detailed history of this reading and the different editions of the Geneva Bible.
- 139.
Franciscus Junius, Apocalypsis, A Briefe and Learned Commentarie Upon the Revelation of Saint Iohn, (London, 1592) f. 7r.
- 140.
Junius, Apocalypsis, p. 79 n.3.
- 141.
Junius, Apocalypsis, p. 79 n.11.
- 142.
Firth, Apocalyptic Tradition, p. 138.
- 143.
Napier, Plaine, sig. A4iiiv.
- 144.
Napier, Plaine, p. 240.
- 145.
Napier, Plaine, p. 190. Other examples include pp. 114, 187, 250.
- 146.
Napier, Plaine, pp. 7–22.
- 147.
Hugh Broughton, A Concent of Scripture (London, 1590), sig. 2iir.
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Crome, A. (2014). Hermeneutics and the Jews in Protestant Thought. In: The Restoration of the Jews: Early Modern Hermeneutics, Eschatology, and National Identity in the Works of Thomas Brightman. International Archives of the History of Ideas Archives internationales d'histoire des idées, vol 213. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04762-1_2
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