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1 Introduction

Successful completion of postgraduate professional practice courses is a component of the common pathway for the registration of the title of Architect in Ireland and the United Kingdom (UK). The popularity of the architecture profession is increasing with the number of Architects in Europe rising to 100,000, and Ireland’s number of registered Architects rising by 25% in the last ten years to 3300 [1]. Despite this, "professional practice" is an under-researched area, within the context of architectural education [2]. In the past, Master Builders such as Michelangelo and Vitruvius had extensive knowledge of all aspects of the design and construction of buildings and worked independently to a high level of expertise and mastery. With significant societal, scientific and technological developments, the building process gradually became more complex and resulted in the requirements of specialised fields and expertise. As Rifaat [3] points out, it became unattainable for Architects to “effectively emulate the performance of the old masters.” Today there is a requirement for Architects to oversee the process and to act as coordinators [4] and mediators [5] between different professionals. A considerable amount of literature has argued that the ability to collaborate across and communicate with professionals and workers from different disciplines is indispensable for the role of an Architect today [2, 5, 6]. The 21st-century Architect is understood to lead less and facilitate more and they are vitally important as part of a collaborative team [7].

2 Challenges of Professional Practice

In the pursuit of effective pedagogical approaches for architectural education, Borucka and Macikowski [4] assert that it is imperative to, first, understand the contemporary role that the Architect holds today. Similarly, Legény et al. [8] remind us of the evolving role of the Architect and argues that educational institutions need to react to the constant change in the architectural profession. Architects have to respond to an increasing level of complexity in the design and construction process. There is consensus in the literature that Architects have to navigate uncertain and changing situations that lead to diverse and evolving demands [9]. In particular, there is greater pressure on the role due to societal challenges, such as the recent pandemic and future inevitable forces that are unknown [7]. There are other challenges in the form of volatile economic forces [10], increased regulatory requirements [11], technological advances, including the evolution of digital tools, artificial intelligence and immersive technologies [12, 13]. However, one of the most pressing issues is the requirement to respond to climate change [14], and meet the requirements for climate neutrality by 2050 [15]. In addition, there is more emphasis placed on the social responsibility to design inclusive, sustainable spaces that are responsive to the needs of the community [16]. The perceived definition of ‘ethics’ within the architectural profession has expanded to create the requirement to design and build for the benefit of the public good and not just the good of the client [6]. Furthermore, it is acknowledged that the vast number of different specialists and stakeholders involved in the design and construction process today adds to the perplexity of the process. Bourka and Macikowski [4] point out, that the complexity is also concerned with the communications among different participants and the diverse fields of knowledge required as a result. Yet it is noted that unwillingness towards engagement with other construction professionals is a weakness in the profession [17].

These challenges will require changes in the working environment and in the professional landscape [7]; moreover, interdisciplinary cooperation and teamwork are proposed as key to dealing with these problems [18, 19]. Architects are required to possess proficiency in implementing theoretical knowledge to complex situations and a holistic knowledge of their own profession. However, MacLaren & Thompson [6] point out that they also need to possess an understanding of their own role in relation to the broader team, be able to communicate with these stakeholders and have an implicit understanding of the other roles within the team. While the importance of ‘collaboration’ within the construction industry has been extensively highlighted, criticism of the “singular discipline mentality” that exists within the industry has been recognised [20]. It has been argued that the need for effective collaboration in all areas of work will assume greater significance and be essential in order to meet the requirement to achieve Net Zero Carbon by 2050 [21]. It is argued that these challenges require more flexible and adaptable ways of practice [9, 18] and a positive attitude towards engagement for successful sustainable interdisciplinary collaboration [22]. Furthermore, Samuel [10] proposes reforms in architectural education to enable more socially aware professionals. Similarly, Scott [24] highlights the need for emerging ways of practice to be more effectively addressed in education and argues that there are shifts required in learning paradigms to tackle the complex global challenges [25]. Analogously, the Education Policies and Standards produced by the Royal Institute of Architects of Ireland (RIAI) [23] propose that to address the ever-expanding scope and complexity of the Architect's role, more effective collaboration within the profession and with allied professions is required. Consequently, the priority placed on collaboration by the RIAI is further evident in the theme and title of the RIAI Annual Conference 2023 entitled ‘Collaboration’.

3 Education of the Profession

Traditional teaching approaches in architectural and engineering courses are primarily founded on passive learning and as such have received a significant amount of criticism. Stump et al. [26] argue that these traditional methods are unsuccessful in preparing students for professional practices. Oliveira et al. [27] suggest that the siloed discipline-based structure of architecture and engineering courses is the reason for failure to meet the current or future needs of the industry [27]. Furthermore, it is argued that the tendency within architectural education to give priority to traditional design knowledge rather than collaborative and critical learning is unfavourable and leads to disconnected experiences [27]. Notwithstanding this criticism, there are some notable examples of interdisciplinary learning present in the history of architectural education, specifically the London County Council (LCC) School of Building in Brixton (1904-1970s) and the Bauhaus Art School Dessau (1925–1932). In the LCC School of Building in Brixton, the emphasis was placed on instructional setting and Building Trades and Architects were taught under the same roof [28] (Fig. 1a and b).

Fig. 1.
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a and b. School of Building: Carpentry and School of Building: Stone Masonry Class by unknown, photograph © London Metropolitan Archives (City of London).

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While at the Bauhaus, Walter Gropius’ aimed to create a comprehensive artwork that would eventually bring all the arts together. The Bauhaus curriculum included elementary form and basic studies of materials taught over the first three years (See Fig. 2 and 3). Only after completing the fundamental courses were the best students allowed to progress to the core architecture course.

Fig. 2.
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Gropius, Walter, (1883–1969). (1925–1926, Image: 05/15/2003). Bauhaus, exterior, workshop wing, view from south. [Art schools]. Retrieved from https://library.artstor.org

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Fig. 3.
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Diagram of the Bauhaus Curriculum, CC BY-SA3.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

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Although it is acknowledged that courses such as the Bauhaus and LCC School of Building had a historical influence on architectural education, there were few other examples of multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary learning in architectural education prior to 2000 [29]. The education sector has been much slower than industry to focus on integrating multidisciplinary collaboration and teamwork. There is a relatively small body of literature concerned with collaboration between design and construction disciplines within an educational context [30]. The majority of these studies have been qualitative and have focused on interdisciplinary design collaboration and teamwork using digital modalities [31]. A frequently observed theme in recent studies published on interdisciplinary learning within architecture courses is the presence of an overarching aim of sustainable building practices [30, 32, 33]. However, it should be noted that the preponderance of recent studies pertains to experiences and projects that are relatively short (commonly only lasting between four days and five weeks) [34].

There is consensus that the vast majority of architecture students’ time is spent working alone with limited opportunities to collaborate with students from other disciplines. As a consequence, it is argued that architecture students lack the ability to effectively communicate and collaborate [5]. In this respect, the Architects’ Council of Europe advise that teamwork and collective intelligence should be prioritised over the rigid categorisation of disciplines in a new systemic condition of teaching [15]. In addition, they advise developing relevant skills to support research in practice [35].

4 Pedagogy

The principal approach of architectural teaching focuses on the Design Studio. This learning paradigm supports integrative learning to lead to creative exploration and critical discourse. The Design Studio was proposed by Schön [36] as an exemplar for other professional courses. Paradoxically, other architecture modules (including professional practice) are generally taught in a more didactic, disintegrative way [37].

The scholarship of teaching and learning provides empirical support for the efficacy of peer learning in architectural education. The conversation theory framework offers a way to explain how interactions lead to knowing [38]. As well as bolstering students’ confidence and competence, peer learning is also credited with alleviating students’ anxiety [39]. Furthermore, in drawing from fields such as situated learning, interdisciplinary learning is recognised as emphasising the collaborative construction of knowledge in specific contexts and its benefits are not contested. Moreover, social anthropology aligns with this concept of learning as a social process in which knowledge is co-constructed and is situated in a specific social and physical environment [40]. In addition to Bigg’s [41] outcome-based theory of constructive alignment, pedagogical approaches such as problem-based and participatory learning are more effective in bridging the gap between education and practice than the universal approach of imparting facts [9, 42, 43], challenge-based (team) learning [44] and the reflective process of assessing potential solutions [36] have been espoused as important for architecture students.

By establishing pedagogical approaches that promote and utilise the combined skills of Architects and Engineers, mutual respect and understanding of their own and the other disciplines will be possible [7]. Architects often do not apprehend and defend their unique skill sets, which are predominantly idea or solution-orientated. To enable their viable skill sets to adapt and respond to challenges and have new ideas for the future realised and acknowledged, reflective practice is important [25]. Reflective practice enables the ability to recognise one’s limitations and ensure subsequent life-long learning. Facilitating this, for instance, by referencing frameworks such as the conscious competence model as a way of studying experiential learning, is beneficial for professional practice [45]. In addition, an interdisciplinary learning approach aligns with the evolving landscape of architectural ways of practice. This recognises the need for meta-competencies that facilitate the development of collaboration and communication in a multi-disciplinary environment. By aligning curriculum with real-world ways of practice, students are enabled to develop the necessary meta-competencies that underscore competency development, to operate effectively in complex and uncertain environments.

5 Professional Practice Courses

Demonstration of professional knowledge, skills and competencies are required for eligibility for Architectural Registration. These requirements are based on the elements listed under Article 46 of the EU Qualifications Directive (2005/36/EC). In the UK, registration for Architects is through the Architects Registration Board (ARB) whereas in Ireland, the RIAI [46] are the registration body and competent authority. Their Standard of Knowledge, Skill and Competence for Practice as an Architect, at a professional level, is currently under review and the revision awaits publication. The current eligibility requirements include knowledge of regulation, context, professionalism, management, technology and procurement and ability in design and communication. In Ireland and the UK, a candidate for registration usually completes the professional practice lecture course and examinations prior to registration. In Ireland the courses are set against the EU Directive 2005 36 - Article 46 [47] At present, the RIAI route `C’ sets the criteria for courses until the publication of a new competency framework.

The UK Courses are delivered and assessed in accordance with requirements of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA)/Architects Registration Board (ARB) shared Professional Criteria for Part 3.[48]. These criteria include Professionalism (PC1), client users and delivery of services (PC2), legal framework and processes (PC3), Practice and management (PC4), and building procurement (PC5). In the UK the review of Architects Competencies Report [54] stated findings relating to the increasing importance of the Architects’ roles regarding climate change/sustainability and management of health and safety. This aligns with the RIBAs’ three specific mandatory competencies for attaining and maintaining chartered status; health and life safety, climate literacy, and ethical practice, with a possibility of research literacy being added [49]. This refinement of competencies is clear and direct and demonstrates a move away from a focus on cognitive and design skills to practical and interpersonal competencies required for professional practice.

6 Comparison of Irish and UK Professional Practice Courses

Ireland and UK postgraduate professional practice courses prepare architectural graduates for registered status as an Architect, knowledge and ability against a set of key criteria. In order to sit the examinations, a minimum of 24 months of relevant practical experience is required. As a result, candidates generally undertake their professional practice course part-time while working full-time in practice. Consequently, it can be an onerous undertaking for the candidate and the practice in which they are working.

The comparison of 20 Irish and UK Professional Practice courses revealed differences in European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTs) awarded. Ireland’s courses award 30 ECTs and the UK courses most commonly award 60 ECTs for very similar curricula and assessments. The typical course duration is predominantly one year (part-time) however pathways do range from six months (London Metropolitan University) to 5 years flexible study option (University of Greenwich; Technological University Dublin). The majority of courses are delivered in person with exceptions including predominantly online, (University College London) and fully online courses (University of Bath). While in Ireland, University College Dublin (UCD) offers a choice of online and in-person modes. Although a small number of institutions simultaneously offer their professional practice modules to professionals in the built environment who may register for individual modules as part of their continuous professional development (CPD), there is a lack of institutions specifying or highlighting that their course is multidisciplinary. Despite the call for interdisciplinary learning within the architectural industry and in education, this does not seem to be provided for within the current course offerings.

In both Ireland and the UK, assessment components generally include documentary submissions relating to practical experience, as well as procedural, legal, professional and managerial themes. The practical experience submissions generally take the form of a Career Appraisal Report that focuses on professional practice as well as a case study with an average requirement of 8000 words. The word count of the case study ranges from 5000 (Architectural Association School) to 10,000–12000 (UCD). The other topics are generally assessed via essays and written examinations as well as a final interview. However, personal reflection on practice and learning is promoted as coursework by a few institutions including London Metropolitan University, London South Bank University, Newcastle University, and the University of Greenwich.

In the UK, The Architects Registration Board, report the need for modernisation to the structure of parts 1, 2 and 3 education of Architects [62]. A rethinking of course content and structure to include formative reflective practice and meta-competency development could be more conducive to lifelong learning and the development of reflective and critical practitioners.

7 Demand for Postgraduate Professional Practice Courses

There are currently five qualifications in architecture that are legally recognised for access to the Register of Architects in the Republic of Ireland. Table 1 lists the Higher Education institutes (HEI) delivering those courses along with the number of graduates on each, for four consecutive academic years. In addition to these courses, Atlantic Technological University Sligo has also been awarded provisional approval as a prescribed course. With 55 new entrants in the 2022–2023 academic year, it is expected that this will add significantly to the total number of graduates in the country. In addition to the pressure that this will put on the demand for postgraduate professional practice examination courses, there is further pressure from graduates coming from abroad and requiring registration in Ireland. As a result, the RIAI has stated that the provision of 140–150 places on professional practice examination courses may not meet the demand [50].

Table 2 lists the only two professional practice examination courses that are accredited by the RIAI and specified under the Building Control Act 2007 for access to the register of Architects in the Republic of Ireland. Although the RIAI have noted that each can enrol 70–75 students, the number of graduates shown in Table 2 reveals a significant disparity between enrolment and graduate numbers on both courses. Owing to attempts to help students complete the course and delays during the COVID-19 pandemic, UCD did not accept any new entrants in the 2023–2024 academic year. Despite being listed as part-time one-year courses, on both prospectuses, it is thought that the disparity between enrollment and graduate figures is because it is not uncommon for students to take two, three or more years to successfully complete the course. This limits the ability of these courses to meet the need and infers a demand for a new course.

Table 1. Graduates by HEI, course name, academic year (Higher Education Authority Statistics Unit. (2024). Personal communication)
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Table 2. Professional Practice Graduates by HEI, course name, academic year (Higher Education Authority Statistics Unit. (2024). Personal communication)
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8 Meta-competencies

Professional Practice is “the embodiment, indeed the expression, of the practitioner’s everyday knowledge” [51]. The recruitment process in architectural practices has shifted focus from cognitive to soft/professional skills to include teamwork, leadership, negotiation and critical thinking [52]. In addition, interpersonal, communication, responsibility, and a positive attitude are also becoming integral to meeting the demands of the profession [53]. Meta-competencies and soft/professional skills are inextricably linked and interdependent with a range of skills that are often included with the term 21st-century skills [52]. Meta-competencies have appeared in professional competency models that incorporate reflection [36, 55, 56], yet are not included in most educational and professional frameworks. Meta-competencies enable people to become flexible and should be fostered in higher education to allow future adaptation in the workforce [12]. In addition, they can increase students’ entrepreneurial mindset and readiness for innovation by enabling complex thinking and reflection [26]. The literature is varied as to its categorisations and definitions of the terms; competencies, competences and meta-competencies [25]. The term competence is understood as a combination of an Architect’s knowledge, skills and experience [5]. Meta-competencies are higher-order abilities, which facilitate skillful, meaningful learning, thinking and adapting in diverse contexts, required for the activation of all other skills and competencies that help prepare people for future change [18, 25, 55, 57, 58].

Cheetham and Chivers [55] proposed a holistic model of professional competency by combining Schons’ reflective practitioner [36] approach with meta-competencies, explained as the ability to cope with uncertainty, as well as with learning and reflection. Le Deist and Winterton explain cognitive competence (knowledge), functional competence (skills) and social competence (attributes) are required in order to be effective at work. They prioritise meta-competencies relating to learning to learn and align them with individual effectiveness, and that of social competence [25]. Meta-competencies such as volition, self-regulation and action competence can control the development of professional skills [59]. In addition, Bates et al. [60] prioritised meta-competencies of inter-relation, intrapersonal (self-management and self-reflection), domain-specific and normative (moral and ethical judgement) competence. Inter-relation skills enable the crossing of disciplinary and cultural boundaries, which harnesses empathy, communication and collaboration, to connect with other people. This was revealed as unique to address complex real-world problems aligned with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) they focused upon. Furthermore, system and temporal thinking, interpersonal and ethical literacy, as well as creativity are five meta-competencies proposed for addressing the UN SDGs. This infers educational approaches to include case studies, guided inquiry with peer-to-peer learning, reflection essays along with self-assessment exercises and instruments [61].

Meta-competencies such as an open and creative mind, leadership, ability to prioritise, self-awareness, self-directed growth and self-reflection are also highlighted as important in the architecture profession [18]. While it has long since been acknowledged that these skills are required by Architects, the prevailing view in the literature is that meta-competencies are needed by graduates for future adaptation, employability, and success in the workplace [18, 60].

9 Conclusion

The role of Architects within the construction industry is demanding and evolving due to increased challenges and complexities. The recruitment process of Architects has shifted towards emphasising soft and professional skills rather than cognitive abilities, underlining the significance of teamwork, leadership, negotiation, and critical thinking. Skills such as interpersonal communication, accountability, and a positive attitude are also considered crucial for professional effectiveness. Despite this, professional criteria for Architects’ registration typically relate to professional, procedural, legal, and managerial competencies. A comparison of Irish and UK postgraduate professional practice courses for Architects revealed similarities in duration, curriculum and assessment, yet significant variances exist concerning awarded credits in the qualifications. In considering how professional practice courses respond or adapt to complex global challenges and opportunities present today and in the future, interdisciplinary collaboration and meta-competency development are regarded as fundamental. In addition, fostering reflective practice as a learning outcome-based approach is considered beneficial for Architects as they journey through lifelong learning and navigate the diverse ways of practice.