Keywords

1 Introduction

This chapter sets forth an explication of the AVENUE sustainability assessment methodology, starting with an examination of the theoretical underpinnings of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) concepts and the methodological framework applied for rigorous assessment.

Subsequently, Sect. 2 presents a scholarly synthesis highlighting the principal outcomes emerging from the endeavours within Work Package 8. These results encapsulate the insights from the environmental impact assessment, the economic impact assessment and the social impact assessment, thus contributing to the scholarly discourse on sustainable urban mobility. This approach has been completed by technical and governance issues as they have indeed economic, environmental and social impact which should not be neglected. In contrast to conventional assessments, this evaluation adopts thus a comprehensive, holistic but also challenging approach, thereby striving to contribute a novel methodology that blends diverse facets of sustainability into a unified framework.

2 SUMP as a Framework

The concept of the Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) aims at a ‘new planning paradigm’ in mobility, which comprehends a shift from planning for motorised roads and infrastructure to planning for people (Arsenio et al. 2016). SUMP’s approach has been widely recognised, targeting sustainable and integrative planning processes to deal with the complexity and dynamicity of urban mobility (Eltis 2021). Hence, it embraces new modes of transport, e.g. micromobility, automated and connected vehicles and new concepts such as Mobility as a Service (MaaS), shared mobility and so on.

The concept of SUMP comprehends the integration of all modes of transport, public and private, motorised and nonmotorised and a long-term planning vision. It targets to improve mobility accessibility, sustainability and citizens’ well-being (European Commission 2013).

Furthermore, SUMP provides general guidelines for planning and implementation. It is composed of four main phases:

  1. 1.

    Preparation and context analysis.

  2. 2.

    Strategy development.

  3. 3.

    Measure planning.

  4. 4.

    Implementation and monitoring.

SUMP has been implemented in a number of cities and countries and in diverse settings. For instance, in the city of Koprivnica, Croatia, the municipality carried out a status analysis of its mobility situation; for this, an extensive consultation process engaged a range of stakeholders and a public survey (Mobility Plans, n.d.). In Cambridgeshire, UK, the Local Transport Plan (LTP) 2011–2026 defined indicators and targets to monitor progress towards the plan’s objectives, which were aligned with the long-term strategy for transport (ibid).

Russo and Rindone (2023) explore how European cities are becoming smarter by focusing on urban mobility, energy and Information and Communication Technologies. It highlights the importance of SUMPs in achieving this goal. By implementing MaaS plans, cities aim to better understand mobility patterns and their energy implications. The paper offers insights for researchers, planners, and decision-makers into European efforts towards sustainable urban development and improved mobility systems.

Mück et al. (2019) describe the living labs as an innovative approach to foster sustainable mobility planning in Munich. Such living labs aim to demonstrate innovative solutions on mobility, to provide user experiences and to reduce potential gaps between long-term urban planning and the current development of mobility in the city (ibid).

Sampaio et al. (2020) carried out an economic and environmental analysis of measures from a SUMP in a small-sized city. The study compared the transport emissions and external costs of the baseline scenario with the status after the SUMP measures were implemented. The measures consisted of (M1) promoting cycling, (M2) modernisation of the local fleet and (M3) trucks logistic optimisation. According to the study, all measures presented a potential to reduce emissions, in particular the modernisation of the local fleet, with a potential reduction of CO2 emissions by 9% and the reduction of external costs by 11%. The study from Arsenio et al. (2016) reviewed a sample of 40 case studies of SUMPs in Portugal, focusing on climate change goals and equity issues on accessibility. The main findings point that SUMP guidelines remain very broad and general, and there is an absence of specific guidance. For instance, there are gaps of guidance on methods to account for GHG emissions and monitoring indicators to measure the progress in different issues.

Such examples illustrate the SUMPS adoption and implementation in different phases: decision and planning, developing vision and strategies with stakeholders, setting targets and indicators and assessing the impacts of measures.

After this detailed explanation of SUMP, the next chapter shows how it was adapted and applied in AVENUE.

3 SUMP Concept and the AVENUE Project

The AVENUE project aims at deploying automated minibuses as an innovative and safe mobility solution to strengthen the public transport system of European cities. The automated minibus is electric and shared, and it is expected to improve accessibility, attractiveness and environmental performance of public transport (flexible on-demand, door-to-door services) to fill gaps in mobility and foster intermodal seamless individual mobility. The scope of the project also aims to critically assess the impacts of the introduction of these new technologies in the urban mobility system. The assessments investigate technical obstacles, potential environmental and climate emissions impacts, social acceptance of users and potential users, business models and economic impacts, safety and security issues and the development of regulations, standards and policies for AVs.

AVENUE project and the SUMP concept are aligned by embracing new and alternative modes of transport and new concepts such as Mobility as a Service (MaaS), integrated and shared mobility and intermodal mobility. Such innovations could support the future shift from private car and individual trips to on-demand public transport and shared rides. It could thus address the mobility gaps and needs existing today which makes it necessary to use privately owned cars.

Furthermore, the AVENUE social, environmental and economic impact assessments will provide key findings to guide the integration and implementation of AV in the urban mobility system while endorsing the sustainable planning, strategies and goals of cities. The assessment studies are important to support a long-term vision, design and planning of mobility. Although the pilot projects are deployed on a small scale and with a technological focus, aspects of being strengthened are the citizens’ participation (e.g. citizen forums and discussions), as well as the active participation and partnership with the local municipality.

Moreover, the integration of automated minibuses in public transport has to be done accordingly to the specificities of each territory and the different mobility needs, aiming to cover real gaps in mobility (in particular in rural and suburban areas) to a real contribution to better accessibility, affordability and environment-friendly mobility.

Finally, by aiming for a transition towards greener and sustainable transport, it is crucial that AVs deployment be consistent with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), namely, SDG 9 targeting to build resilient infrastructure and foster innovation, SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities and SDG 13 Climate Change (United Nations, 2015).

4 AVENUE Impact Assessment Framework

The AVENUE impact assessment offers a thorough review of the AVENUE trials, encompassing evaluations in technical, environmental, economic, societal and governance dimensions. Utilising an interdisciplinary methodology, it delves into multiple analyses to understand the complexities of introducing novel urban mobility and its integration within the transportation framework. For example, the economic and societal evaluations yield insights crucial for forecasting scenarios related to automated vehicles and assessing both direct and indirect costs. The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides environmental metrics essential for calculating environmental externalities. Moreover, findings from the environmental, societal and economic evaluations are integrated into sustainability assessment metrics. To better understand the relationships between these components, the AVENUE assessment framework is illustrated in Fig. 10.1.

Fig. 10.1
A hierarchical chart of the AVENUE impact assessments framework. It has several elements including data input, methods, and analysis, social economic and environmental impact assessment, followed by sustainability assessment.

Framework of the AVENUE impact assessments

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The framework outlines three principal axes: firstly, the comprehensive spectrum encompassing data input, methodologies and analyses; secondly, the multifaceted assessments covering social, economic, environmental and sustainability dimensions; and thirdly, the complex interconnections with tasks across other work packages.

The array of arrows signifies the intricate interrelationships and mutual dependencies among various segments of this assessment. The economic analysis (Chap. 14), particularly focusing on externalities, is intricately influenced by diverse previously formulated scenarios, including Business as Usual (BAU) and an AV 2030 Vision scenario derived from a survey. Moreover, a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of automated minibuses (Chap. 13) underpinned this analysis by supporting the calculation of various external cost categories such as those related to climate change, air pollution and habitat degradation, among others. The outcome of this analysis fed into sustainability Indicator 16, a framework articulated during AVENUE and developed by Nemoto et al. (2021), aimed at assessing the impacts of shared automated electric vehicles on urban mobility (see Chap. 17).

Additionally, qualitative discussions on rebound effects were integrated into the analysis of economic externalities. These rebound effects were gathered from the social impact analysis (Chap. 15), notably a survey on mobility attitudes and possible changes in behaviour in cities that shed light on modal shares in the local areas of the pilots and potential modal shifts. These surveys encompassed representative surveys at the city and pilot levels, user surveys, a longitudinal survey of pilot areas and an ad hoc survey of passengers and operators on site across all four pilot sites. Representative surveys are in particular relevant to understand the acceptance and possible changes in behaviour for user but also for non-user as car drivers, children, persons with reduced mobility, etc. The results were then utilised to calculate the modal shift and further the environmental and economic impact like externalities or possible rebound effects depending on the used scenarios.

Having addressed the environmental and social dimensions, a business operational Total Cost of Mobility (TCM) approach, grounded in the same pre-established scenarios as the externality analysis, was introduced (Chap. 12). The TCM approach is necessary to address the seamless journey. It has to be seen as complementary to the traditional Total Cost of Ownership approach which focuses on the ownership of vehicles and not on seamless service-based journeys. This assessment also contributed to the sustainability assessment framework as Indicator 15. The TCM analysis subsequently translated into a business case for the AVENUE demonstrators and pilots, explaining the costs for Public Transport Operators (PTOs), their revenues and, significantly, the profitability of deploying automated shuttles. Furthermore, the direct user costs of transport were factored into this analysis.

Conversely, the economic externalities analysis informed the environmental impact assessment at both city and local area levels (pilot level). Similarly, the social impact analysis provided insights for both the social impact assessment at city and local area levels. Together, these three assessments at varying scales constitute the AVENUE impact assessment framework, aiming to illustrate the repercussions of automated shuttle deployment on diverse stakeholders.

Among the stakeholders identified in the stakeholder analysis of Chap. 9, cities emerge as crucial actors, with factors such as adoption speed and citizen acceptance of the new service playing pivotal roles in social impacts (see colour yellow in the sustainability assessment box of Fig. 10.1). Noteworthy potential cost savings include space optimisation, accident reduction and emissions reduction. Economic impacts on cities entail identified cost savings in municipal budgets, alongside implications for Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMP), urban mobility and planning.

Public Transport Operators (PTOs) represent another significant stakeholder poised to benefit from the business models developed in the economic assessment. The MaaS ecosystem, with its intricate network of stakeholders, constitutes yet another vital stakeholder in this sustainability assessment, thriving on a profitable business model and the demonstrated viability of the AV public transport ecosystem. Lastly, the user/non-user category stands out, with potential benefits including cost and time savings and improved accessibility, while their acceptance and mobility behaviour significantly influence the impact of automated mobility. The holistic analysis together with the stakeholder analysis allows then for the formulation of policy recommendations for the city and the public transportation operators and authorities (Chaps. 18 and 19). These recommendations additionally include regulatory and technical obstacles and facilitator analysis of Work Package 2 (Chaps. 11 and 16) which have been conducted based on input from Chaps. 5, 6 and 7.

This comprehensive overview serves as a guide for delving into the nuances encapsulated within Fig. 10.1. of the framework.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, this chapter has provided a detailed explication of the AVENUE sustainability assessment methodology, rooted in the theoretical foundations of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs) and a rigorous methodological framework. By synthesising scholarly insights from environmental, economic and social impact assessments, this chapter contributes significantly to the discourse on sustainable urban mobility. The innovative approach of AVENUE’s evaluation, which integrates diverse facets of sustainability into a unified framework, marks a step forward in assessing the impacts of urban mobility solutions on a holistic way.

The discussion elucidates the concept of SUMPs as a framework for sustainable and integrative planning in urban mobility, emphasising the importance of embracing new modes of transport and innovative concepts like MaaS and shared mobility. Case studies presented underscore the diverse implementations of SUMPs across different cities and settings, highlighting the necessity for more specific guidance and methods in future iterations.

Furthermore, the alignment of the AVENUE project with the SUMP concept is evident in its aim to deploy automated minibuses as a sustainable mobility solution, while critically assessing their impacts on the environment, society and economy. The integration of AVENUE’s impact assessment framework, encompassing environmental, economic and societal dimensions but also technical ad governance issues. It offers crucial insights for guiding the integration and implementation of automated vehicles in urban mobility systems.

Through a comprehensive analysis, the chapter delineates the complex interrelationships among various components of the AVENUE assessment framework, elucidating the implications for diverse stakeholders such as cities, Public Transport Operators and users. Ultimately, this chapter lays the groundwork for a deeper understanding of the multifaceted impacts of automated mobility solutions and underscores the importance of aligning urban transport innovations with the goals of sustainable development. The result will be integrated in the FAME initiativeFootnote 1 which consolidates and shares in the European Union all the methodologies used for evaluation of implementing automated vehicles in large-scale demonstration sites.