1.1 Automated Vehicles (AVs) for a New Mobility

Since Adam Smith (1776) and David Ricardo (1817), we know that mobility of people and goods is the basis for the functioning and growth of economies based on the division of labour. In modern economies, in particular, goods can be produced in one place and made available for consumption in another. People can further move long distances to work, consume goods from all over the world and participate in education and social life outside their immediate environment. Mobility is therefore a key factor for growth and prosperity.

However, mobility is also criticised for the environmental and social costs it can cause. There are various strategies to deal with this. One option is to accept and continue the current paradigm, accepting the associated costs. Another option is to be more sober and reduce mobility (sufficiency strategy), but this strategy is not very popular and would as a consequence reduce and focus activity, purchasing power and the production on a local level to lower environmental impacts (Matusiewicz, 2024). However, with the new digital and automated technologies, it seems possible to avoid these negative scenarios and (a) keep or even increase current prosperity levels while (b) better meeting people’s mobility needs at an affordable price and (c) additionally addressing environmental issues.

The division of labour can indeed be improved and even automatised through digital technologies. Transaction and information costs can be significantly reduced in this way (Rifkin, 2015). As a consequence, the control/management of sophisticated technical systems, such as automated vehicles, can be streamlined and simplified. At a higher organisational level, such as a city, the coordination among stakeholders within the entire mobility/transport ecosystems can further be enhanced and even partly automatised as well. Collaboration could thus optimise the use of material and energy,Footnote 1 reduce waste and improve the mobility services. Meeting the mobility needs of citizens by aggregating services and combining them into a seamless and comfortable journey could accordingly be better fulfilled. A transformation towards sustainable mobility could so be the choice of the citizen and be fulfilled without constraints. Beyond that, new opportunities to improve the efficiency and flexibility of the transport system arise from the integration of data generated/made available by the mobility/transport ecosystem, combined with the capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI). As a consequence, these developments support the disappearance of the traditional distinction between individual transport and the transport services provided/offered by public (Haan et al., 2020) and/or private transport operators. Consequently, it appears feasible to revolutionise urban mobility/transport and enable sustainable mobility without a coercive transport policy. This book summarises the learnings from the European Horizon 2020 project AVENUE and would like to contribute how automated vehicles (AVs)Footnote 2 could be a game changer to realise this transformation.

AVENUE was a European Horizon 2020 project spanning 4.5 years from May 2018 to October 2022. The primary objective of AVENUE was to validate the suitability and efficiency of deploying small- and medium-sized AVs into Europe’s public transportation system (Konstantas, 2021). AVENUE aims were to design and carry out full-scale demonstrations of urban transport automation by deploying, for the first time worldwide, fleets of automated minibuses in low- to medium-demand areas of four European demonstrator cities: Geneva (Meyrin, Belle-Idée; Switzerland), Lyon (Parc OL; France), Copenhagen (Nordhavn, Slagelse; Denmark) and Luxembourg (Pfaffenthal, Contern; Luxembourg) and two replicator cities (Uvrier in Switzerland and Esch-sur-Alzette in Luxembourg). The AVENUE vision for future public transport in urban and suburban areas was that AVs will ensure safe, rapid, economic, sustainable and personalised transport of passengers. AVENUE introduced disruptive public transportation paradigms on the basis of on-demand, door-to-door services, aiming to set up a new model of public transportation, by revisiting the offered public transportation services, and aiming to suppress prescheduled fixed bus itineraries.

The progress and findings achieved with the AVENUE project provided evidence supporting the possible role of AVs not only in public transport but also as a possible transformative improvement for the entire transport system of a city (see part 3). The in-depth research by the AVENUE project presented in this book is structured in three parts. Part 1 describes and analyses the complexities of such projects in detail. Part 2 presented the impact assessment of the AVENUE projects where we use an interdisciplinary sustainable urban mobility plan (SUMP)-based holistic approach making a link between social, economic and environmental dimensions and also addressing technical obstacles and legal issues. Part 3 finally explores how AVs could become a game changer for urban transport systems, driving them towards a (more) sustainable transport/mobility system and also examining how this transformation can be realised effectively. The three parts of the book are briefly summarised below and then presented in more detail for each book chapter in the next section “Contents of the Individual Book Parts”.

Part 1 of the book (“AVENUE Project: Implementing Automated Minibuses for Door-to-Door and On-Demand Passenger Transportation”) examines the fundamental transformative role of AVs in public transport as a whole and in four key European cities as test sites of the AVENUE project. AVENUE demonstrated the possibilities of automating mobility/transport by deploying fleets of automated minibuses for the first time worldwide in areas with low to medium demand. This first part of the book looks in particular at the technological advances through the project and challenges of AVs, particularly automated minibuses, and how these vehicles are being integrated into public transport systems. The individual sub-chapters address safety, service quality and the impact of in-vehicle services on user experience and security. The development of in-vehicle services is particularly relevant to prepare the transition from an in-vehicle safety operator to a teleoperator, who will initially manage one and subsequently multiple vehicles from an external location. To this end, safety issues, for example, were thus addressed with artificial intelligence to substitute the services provided by the safety driver when level 4 will be achieved. Critical aspects of cyber security, data protection and the application of advanced security solutions such as security information and event management (SIEM) are also covered. The part presents last but not least solutions to support vulnerable travellers and concludes with a stakeholder analysis highlighting the need for collaboration in the introduction of automated minibuses in public transport.

Part 2 of the book (“Impact Assessment of AVENUE”) presents a multifaceted analysis of the deployment of AMs in mobility ecosystems. It uses a holistic approach to understand the relationships between technical, economic, social, environmental and legal dimensions of such projects. It begins with an introduction to the sustainable urban mobility plan (SUMP) and its integration with AVENUE, emphasising citizen-centric mobility planning. The sections then delve into various aspects of automated minibuses, including technical challenges and advancements, economic analysis focusing on service costs and externalities and the social impacts on mobility behaviour. The governance impact assessment is also explored, highlighting regulatory challenges and solutions. Lastly, a comprehensive sustainability assessment is provided, evaluating the before-mentioned dimensions of the implications of integrating automated minibuses into urban mobility systems. Overall, this section of the book demonstrates the economic, environmental and social potential of AVs for stakeholders like citizen, companies and public transport operators/authorities.

Part 3 of the book (“Future Vision of AVENUE”) delves into the prospective advancements and strategies for integrating automated minibuses in intelligent transport systems (ITS). It begins with a discussion on system innovation in passenger transportation, focusing on a citizen-centric approach and a future vision 2030 for that. The section explores various pathways for integrating AVs into mobility ecosystems, emphasising the transformative role of automated minibuses in mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) systems to provide services that are similar to private cars in terms of flexibility (see above). With the use of data, AVs could in this model be further integrated into an ITS. AV would complement private (car sharing, bike sharing, ride sharing, etc.) and public transport and make the transport system as a whole more efficient and resilient. Instead of a product innovation, the entire transport system could be improved towards sustainable mobility. The emphasis is on leveraging data to enhance the efficiency, flexibility and resilience of the transport system, a concept referred to as ambidexterity, meaning that antinomic economic goals can be achieved at the same time. The final chapter addresses transition planning towards a sustainable mobility ecosystem, outlining a strategic, phased approach for this transition, especially to the proposed AM in MaaS/ITS system. However, it highlights the challenges and opportunities in creating effective, sustainable urban mobility plans.

To assist the reader, you will find a brief summary of the chapters below.

1.2 Contents of the Individual Book Parts

1.2.1 Part 1: The AVENUE Project: Implementing Automated Minibuses for “Door-to-Door” and “On-Demand” Passenger Transportation in Geneva, Lyon, Luxembourg and Copenhagen

  • Chapter 2: AVENUE Site Demonstrators: Geneva, Lyon, Luxembourg and Copenhagen

The first sections examine the transformation of public transport by AVs in Geneva, Lyon, Luxembourg and Copenhagen, within the AVENUE project. It addresses objectives, deployment (automation level, on demand, door to door), achievements, key success factors and future developments of integrating AV in public transport in the different demonstration sites. The chapter underscores the importance of real-world testing within AVENUE project case studies and aims to show how AVs can reshape twenty-first-century public transport as well as the entire mobility ecosystem.

  • Chapter 3: Automated Minibuses: State of the Art and Improvements Through AVENUE

This chapter focuses on advances in AV technology, particularly automated minibuses for public transport. It discusses the development of AV technology, detailing the contributions of NAVYA and the significant technological advances achieved through the AVENUE project. The chapter addresses the integration of AVs into public transport systems, the development of door-to-door on-demand services and the challenges of managing the entire AV ecosystem. It also documents the continuous improvements in software and hardware, the legal and regulatory challenges and NAVYA’s role in shaping the AV landscape in Europe and highlights the impact of the project on future technological developments in this area.

  • Chapter 4: Safety, Security and Service Quality for Automated Minibuses: State of the Art, Technical Requirements and Data Privacy in Case of Incident

This chapter proposes the critical aspects of safety and service quality in the use of AMs. It discusses the state of the art in safety measures, the need for technical reliability and the challenges of data protection and cyber security. The chapter emphasises the importance of maintaining high safety standards for the successful integration of automated minibuses into public transport and examines strategies to continuously improve safety and service quality, including regulatory compliance and incident management.

  • Chapter 5: In-Vehicle Services to Improve the User Experience and Security when Traveling with Automated Minibuses

This chapter deals with the development and implementation of various in-vehicle services designed to improve the user experience and safety in automated minibuses. It addresses the integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence and deep learning models to address the challenges related to passenger safety and comfort. The chapter emphasises the importance of these services in the context of driverless public transport and highlights how they contribute to the overall efficiency and acceptance of AVs in the urban environment.

  • Chapter 6: Cybersecurity and Data Privacy: Stakeholders’ Stand on Regulations and Standards

This chapter discusses the importance and challenges of ensuring cybersecurity and data protection in the context of connected AVs. It investigates technological and regulatory aspects through outlining the threat landscape within the AV’s ecosystem and showcasing how such threats are considered within a case study where AVs are foreseen as a means of public transport. The study results demonstrate these vehicles’ resilience from cyber and privacy threats. With an alignment to the core regulations and standards, this chapter also derives the main mitigation strategies and requirements to strengthen the evolving technology in automated transport.

  • Chapter 7: Technical Cybersecurity Implementation on Automated Minibuses with Security Information and Event Management (SIEM)

This chapter discusses the integration of security information and event management (SIEM) solutions in automated minibuses. It discusses the importance of SIEM in real-time monitoring and response for cybersecurity and examines its application in the context of automated minibuses. The chapter provides an analysis of different SIEM software solutions and their role in protecting against cyberthreats and highlights the critical need for advanced security measures in the automated transport sector.

  • Chapter 8: Persons with Reduced Mobility (PRM): Specific Requirements for Passenger Transportation Services

The use of fully automated vehicles in public transport has the potential to revolutionise the complete landscape of public transport. Fully automated vehicles can provide the necessary frequency even in places with a low passenger volume. In addition, these vehicles can stop even in places which are not yet integrated into the public transport network, thus better meeting the needs of passengers as public transport becomes more and more individual. The absence of a driver, however, also implies that these vehicles must provide more services than conventional ones. This chapter presents the findings on passenger services for fully automated minibuses after 2 years of studies with passengers. These findings were gathered based on observations, workshops, questionnaires and interviews with (disabled) passengers, safety drivers, bus drivers, PTOs and associations of disabled persons.

  • Annex 8: AnnexMobile Apps for Blind and Low-Vision Public Transport Travellers

This chapter focuses on mobile applications designed to help blind and visually impaired people on public transport. It lists various iOS apps, such as GoodMaps Outdoors, BlindSquare, myfinder and Seeing AI and describes their functions such as GPS navigation, obstacle detection and information provision. The chapter emphasises that these apps are complementary aids and not a replacement for conventional aids. It also emphasises the need to equip vehicles with assistive technologies to provide visually impaired users with a comprehensive public transport experience.

  • Chapter 9: Stakeholder Analysis and AVENUE Strategies

This chapter presents a comprehensive stakeholder analysis for the use of automated minibuses in public transport systems. The most significant stakeholder groups and their expectations, needs and impacts are identified using qualitative methods. It discusses the diverse impact different stakeholder groups have on the advancement of automated minibuses and provides strategic recommendations for stakeholders such as governments, public transport operators and citizen groups. It emphasises the importance of stakeholder collaboration, collective action in updating regulatory frameworks and the integration of AM into mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) systems.

1.2.2 Part 2: Impact Assessment of AVENUE

  • Chapter 10: Research Approach: Introduction to SUMP and AVENUE Methodology

The first chapter of this second part of the book outlines the concept of the sustainable urban mobility plan (SUMP) and its integration with the AVENUE project. It describes SUMP as a planning paradigm that moves from motorised road planning to people-centred urban mobility planning and how it incorporates elements such as micromobility, AVs and mobility as a service (MaaS). The chapter describes how the different work packages of the AVENUE project, each focusing on automated minibuses, align with SUMP by improving public transport and integrating innovative mobility solutions. It emphasises the importance of interdisciplinary approach to address sustainable planning strategies which integrates economic environmental and social impact assessments (see chapter about sustainable assessment and the developed indicators) but also the stakeholders to formulate recommendations which satisfy citizen, the original transport operator (OEM), the public transport operator and the city, for example.

  • Chapter 11: Technical Impact Assessment: Obstacles and Development of Automated Minibuses for Public Transport

The first section begins by exploring the assessment of technical obstacles and advancements of automated minibuses in public transport, drawing upon insights collected from urban areas like Geneva, Lyon, Luxembourg and Copenhagen within the AVENUE project. This initial exploration provides valuable perspectives on the development of mobility ecosystems. Furthermore, a closer examination unfolds, focusing on specific facets of this evaluation which are critical for the seamless integration of automated minibuses into public transport. Through this study, a spectrum of challenges and progress points observed in AVENUE are described, revealing insights into regulatory compliance, safety demonstration and technological constraints. This chapter emphasises in particular the importance of creating and adopting new open standards for the interoperability of automated technologies. Such standards are central to fostering robust competition between different technological stakeholders, including vehicle manufacturers, fleet management services, V2X technology developers and others, thereby promoting a dynamic and sustainable fair ecosystem in the field of automated transport.

  • Chapter 12: Economic Impact Assessment: Local Service Costs of Automated Minibuses for Public Transport

This chapter provides a detailed economic analysis of AVs in public transport. It presents an economic assessment tool, EASI-AV, which was developed to support public policy in the introduction of innovative mobility services. The tool takes into account the total cost of mobility (TCM) and reflects a modern approach to fleet management, including automated electric mobility. Real data from the pilot sites of the AVENUE project confirm the relevance of the tool as a decision-making aid for the introduction of AVs. The focus of the chapter is on understanding the economic feasibility and impact of integrating AVs into public transport networks.

  • Chapter 13: Environmental Impact Assessment: Automated Minibuses for Public Transport

This chapter assesses the environmental impacts of integrating automated minibuses into public transport systems. It analyses the balance between energy savings offered by automated minibuses through efficient routing and vehicle operation and the increased energy demand due to their connectivity and automation features. Using life cycle assessment (LCA), the study shows that the magnitude of environmental benefits of automated minibuses depends largely on the electricity mix, passenger occupancy (i.e. how many passengers use the vehicle at the same time) and vehicle utilisation over its lifetime.

Future use cases with renewable energy mixes, high passenger occupancies and overall vehicle utilisation highlight the full potential of automated minibuses to become a game changer towards a more environment-friendly transport system.

  • Chapter 14: Economic and Environmental Impact Assessment: Externalities of Automated Vehicles for Public Transports

This chapter analyses the externalities of deploying automated minibuses in public transportation, particularly focusing on possible reductions of external costs. It utilises scenario planning and an externalities model to assess the impact of automated minibus deployment in AVENUE cities. The chapter explores different deployment scenarios, including substituting buses and private cars with automated minibuses, and their potential negative and positive externalities. It provides a nuanced understanding of how different automated minibuses integration strategies can affect transportation systems’ economic and environmental aspects.

  • Chapter 15: Social Impact Assessment: Changing Mobility Behaviour by Understanding Customer Needs and Attitudes

This chapter focuses on the social impact of the use of automated minibuses in the four AVENUE cities. It presents the results of studies on mobility needs, attitudes towards automated minibuses and user experiences in pilot and replicator cities. The results show a generally positive, open-minded attitude of citizens towards automated minibuses and a higher willingness to use automated minibus services when they are on demand, door to door and integrated into public transport systems. The chapter emphasises the influence of real-life experiences on acceptance and risk perception and highlights the potential of automated minibuses to transform urban mobility when flexibly integrated into urban transport systems. The quantitative results on user acceptance, which are presented at the end of the chapter, are especially important for the planning of future mobility ecosystems. In particular, the representative survey revealed that a significant proportion of respondents, especially car owners, are willing to switch to automated minibuses if they prove to be efficient and reliable. This shift in preferences highlights the potential impact of AVs on mobility ecosystems and car ownership trends and reflects openness to new, technologically advanced transport solutions. In particular, the representative survey of 1816 citizens in the four AVENUE cities shows that 45% of drivers are “willing” (22%) or even “very willing” (23%) to give up their car to use automated minibuses to cover the first and last mile, if this becomes possible.

  • Chapter 16: Governance Impact Assessment, Regulatory Recommendations and Challenges

This chapter examines the regulatory and governance challenges posed by AVs, focussing in particular on the changes in legislation and governance models required for AVs. It outlines different governance approaches, including global, governmental, self-directed, co-operative, social, technological and financial governance. The chapter highlights the need for an integrated and collaborative approach to creating regulations, taking into account the unique characteristics of AVs and the importance of harmonising laws at different levels. It discusses in detail the impact of the use of AVs on various legal and societal areas and presents legal recommendations for public authorities, emphasising the need for governance that supports societal benefits and addresses ethical, privacy and liability issues.

  • Chapter 17: Sustainability Assessment of the Integration of Automated Minibuses in Urban Mobility Systems: Learnings from the AVENUE Project

The sustainability assessment provides a comprehensive evaluation of the sustainability of automated minibuses in urban mobility ecosystems based on the pilot tests of the AVENUE project. It takes an interdisciplinary approach, integrating environmental, economic and social assessments with a range of sustainability indicators. The chapter assesses the impact of integrating AMs into urban mobility and discusses related challenges, potential benefits and strategies for their integration into sustainable urban mobility plans. It emphasises the importance of aligning AMs with sustainable development goals and the need for system innovation to achieve public transport-centric mobility as a service (MaaS).

1.2.3 Future Vision of AVENUE

  • Chapter 18: System Innovation in Passenger Transportation with Automated Minibuses in ITS: The Citizen-Centric Approach of AVENUE

The first chapter of this third part of the book discusses the integration of automated minibuses in intelligent transport systems (ITS) with a citizen-centric approach, as part of the AVENUE project. It explores three pathways for incorporating AVs into mobility ecosystems: private AVs, robotaxis and automated minibuses in a mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) system. The chapter emphasises that automated minibuses in MaaS could be a “game changer”, enhancing public transport efficiency and flexibility and filling mobility gaps. The successful implementation of this concept hinges on open data and APIs and the potential of artificial intelligence to create a self-learning transport system. The chapter argues that this integration aligns with SUMP, aiming to meet citizens’ needs more effectively while addressing sustainability challenges.

  • Chapter 19: Transition Planning Towards a Sustainable Urban Mobility Ecosystem

The last chapter discusses the process of transitioning towards sustainable mobility, focusing on automated minibuses within MaaS/ITS. It outlines a three-phase process: analysing the status quo, defining a future vision and designing the transition from current scenarios to the envisioned future. The chapter provides a road map for this transition, encompassing critical success factors, stakeholder identification, goal setting and strategic recommendations. It emphasises the need for an integrated approach to create effective transition plans and highlights the challenges and opportunities in realising a sustainable mobility ecosystem.