Keywords

1 Introduction

Media Accessibility (MA) refers to the practice of ensuring media content, such as films, television programmes, cultural events, videos, and online content are accessible to a wide range of people, including people with disabilities. As a research discipline, MA has grown to encompass a broad range of modalities that include, but are not limited to, audio description (AD), subtitling, sign language interpreting, easy-to-read, and different research contexts, such as archives (McDonagh & Aguiar, forthcoming) and the metaverse (Zallio & Clarkson, 2022). In recent years, MA has come to be recognised as a valuable educational tool in the classroom to develop students’ linguistic, intercultural, and digital skills (Black, 2022) as well as offer the opportunity to create accessible content such as AD and captions (McDonagh & Brescia-Zapata, 2023). More recent initiatives have drawn professionals and non-professionals together to create access to cultural experiences, such as opera (Matamala & Orero, 2022) and theatre (Di Giovanni, 2018).

Taking this as our starting point, in this chapter, we will focus on the creation of non-professional AD by secondary students as part of workshops carried out during Ítaca campus in Barcelona, Spain. Students were asked to design and create an accessible, immersive story using the GreenVerse platform, developed as part of the GreenSCENT project (Smart Citizen Engagement for a Green Future, Nº 101036480). Drawing on AD guidelines and best practice in English and Spanish, we will assess the AD created by Ítaca students, examining where and how they differed or aligned to them. We begin this chapter with a broad overview of the field of AD, its prevailing norms and practices. We then follow this with a discussion of AD guidelines in both English and Spanish, before moving on to explore AD’s application in immersive environments and its potential as a pedagogical tool in the classroom. In Sect. 3, we present the methodology followed in the workshops, after which we report on the main results in Sect. 4, highlighting where and how the students’ ADs aligned or indeed deviated from established AD guidelines in both English and Spanish. Finally, we close this chapter with a discussion of ideas for future research, with a specific focus on the didactic potential of AD in the classroom and its future application in immersive media.

2 State of the Art

Traditionally, AD has been viewed as a service specifically designed to cater to the needs of blind and partially blind individuals, enabling them to engage with audiovisual content through a supplementary description of the essential visual components of a work of art or media product (Remael et al., 2014). Conceived as complementary to the primary audio track or physical object, the audio describer is tasked with creating an AD that fills in important gaps in visual information, ensuring that the content is accessible to those who cannot rely solely on sight. The overall success of an AD rests on how the translation of visual information into words is handled and conveyed by the audio describer (Taylor, 2014, p. 42). Through their choice of words and vocal delivery, the audio describer can transform a media product or work of art from dull and uninspired to engaging and immersive for users.

Over the years and as AD has matured as a field, a comprehensive body of guidelines and best practices has emerged to guide its effective implementation across diverse domains, including, but not limited to, traditional media such as film and television (ITC, 2000; Remael et al., 2014; Netflix, 2023), theatrical productions (Snyder, 2010), and museums (Neves, 2014). As the field of AD has grown, practitioners and researchers have refined their guidance accordingly to encompass a broad spectrum of diversity and identity-related concerns (Hutchinson et al., 2020). Taking as reference research by Rai et al. (2010) and Matamala and Orero (2013), we compiled a list of the main regulations, standards, and guidelines on AD that are relevant for our study (in English and Spanish), which are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Summary of regulations, standards, and guidelines in English- and Spanish-speaking countries
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In regard to what to describe, most guidelines and best practices advise audio describers to refrain from overly subjective descriptions, emphasising the need for impartiality. According to Snyder (2010), a prominent advocate for objectivity in AD, the audio describer should refrain from including their personal opinions into their work:

The best audio describer is sometimes referred to as a ‘verbal camera lens’, objectively recounting visual aspects of an event. Qualitative judgements get in the way; they constitute a subjective interpretation on the part of the describer and are unnecessary and unwanted. (2010, p. 43)

In line with Snyder’s recommendation, most industry guidelines and professional standards advise against overtly subjective descriptions (Rai et al., 2010). Notably, in the UK, the ITC Guidance on Standards for Audio Description (2000) cautions audio describers to carefully consider their choice of adjectives when describing a scene, ensuring that their description does not include their personal opinion or interpretation:

A few well-chosen words can enhance a scene considerably, but they must not reflect the personal view of the describer’. (2000, p. 20)

According to the Spanish UNE 153020 Standard (AENOR, 2005, pp. 7–8), audio describers are advised to use appropriate vocabulary, carefully place descriptive units, and consider the sequential importance of the dramatic action and visual elements. The standard also mandates a stylistic finesse characterised by linguistic fluency, syntactic simplicity, and the avoidance of subjective nuances. These criteria aim to ensure the objectivity of AD, providing a comprehensive and neutral portrayal of visual content for diverse audiences. However, as highlighted by Orero (2005) and Orero and Wharton (2007), the Spanish UNE 153020 Standard is unclear and ambiguous in certain aspects on how to elaborate an AD. Font Bisier (2023) further emphasises the need for an update to meet current accessibility needs. For instance, the standard recommends using appropriate language, yet lacks a clear definition of what is meant by ‘appropriate.’ It also introduces some contradictions; while emphasising neutrality and objectivity, it concurrently suggests adapting information to the type of work. This tension between objectivity and subjectivity is echoed in the broader discourse around AD scriptwriting.

As other researchers and practitioners argue, while objectivity is a desirable goal, it is ultimately unattainable due to the intuitive nature of AD scriptwriting, which draws on the audio describer’s own personal interpretation of a scene or artwork (Holland, 2009; Orero, 2008, p. 180). In the light of this inherent subjectivity, recent research has challenged the notion of absolute objectivity in AD, instead promoting alternative versions of AD that depart from established norms (Mazur & Chmiel, 2012a, 2012b). These alternative approaches embrace subjectivity in scene description and include information about the film language when pertinent (Netflix, 2023). In some instances, alternative accessible filmmaking techniques have emerged as viable alternatives to traditional AD, offering a more immersive and personalised experience for audiences (Lopez et al., 2020, 2021). Work undertaken by the Enhancing Audio Description project (2024), for example, demonstrated the potential of enhanced sound design and integrated audio features, such as binaural sound, to serve as a supplement or even substitute for traditional AD (Lopez et al., 2020, 2021). These shifts in approaches have emerged alongside increased collaborations between AD professionals and filmmakers and artistic directors (Romero-Fresco, 2022; Romero-Fresco & Chaume, 2022), which, in turn, have helped foster a more nuanced approach to AD, one that embraces the perspectives of both the audio describer and the creators of the content they describe. Disabled artists and researchers, who have long championed inclusive practices (Cavallo, 2015; Thompson & Warne, 2018), also have come to play an increasing important role in this evolving landscape, offering valuable insights and experiences that have helped shape new norms and conventions for AD, ensuring that it better reflects the diverse needs of its audiences (Romero-Fresco & Dangerfield, 2022).

Despite the growing body of AD guidelines, there are still some unexplored areas of study, particularly the application of AD in immersive media. In contrast to 2D media, where AD is normally delivered in between dialogues (Jankowska, 2015), AD for immersive media, such as 360 videos, requires a more dynamic and adaptable approach to adapt to the unique nature of the content. This presents a unique set of challenges for the audio describer, such as issues related to fixation and interactivity. In 360 videos, the viewer can freely rotate their virtual viewpoint, which presents a dynamic and ever-changing visual field. If the AD is too fixated on a single element, it may fail to capture the broader context and richness of the 360 medium. As an example, an emerging interactive medium that places a growing emphasis on accessibility is video games (Larreina-Morales & Mangirón, 2023). Addressing the challenge of interactivity involves integrating AD with screen readers and sound cues that align with the specific game mechanics.

While AD standards and guidelines in established media platforms like television and film have made significant progress, comparable guidelines for emerging media, such as immersive environments, are still lacking (Fidyka & Matamala, 2018). Recognising this gap, the ImAc (Immersive Accessibility) project (2017–2020) conducted a series of focus groups and experiments to explore the integration of AD into immersive environments. These experiments focussed on two key aspects: how to integrate AD into a 360 immersive environment and address the technical and production considerations for their successful implementation. In focus group discussions with audio describers, a key challenge identified was content selection in 360 environment. Researchers also assessed the preferences of end users, finding that they desired a balance of AD approaches. While describing the main action was essential, end users also appreciated description of visual details that enhanced their overall understanding and immersion within the 360 environment. To further enhance orientation and immersion, researchers suggested adding auditory cues, such as directional sound effect and spatial audio techniques, to provide end users with additional information about their position within the 360 environment, making it easier to navigate and appreciate the immersive experience (Fidyka & Matamala, 2018).

AD has not only evolved to suit new media environments but has also extended its reach into various fields such as education, emerging as a valuable pedagogical tool in the classroom (Kleege & Wallin, 2015). Similar to subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing (Talaván, 2019), AD has been used to develop student’s close visual reading skills, enhance their writing and critical thinking, and raise their awareness of the lived experiences of blindnessFootnote 1 (Kleege & Wallin, 2015). In their research involving university students, Kleege and Wallin (2015) found AD to be an effective pedagogical tool for enhancing students’ engagement and critical analysis skills. Through a series of practical exercises, they demonstrated AD’s ability to foster student awareness of visual media and encourage critical examination of visual communication.

Despite its recognised pedagogical value, AD’s application in immersive environments has not yet been fully realised in the classroom. Seeking to remedy this critical oversight, the following sections present the methodology and results of AD workshops we conducted with secondary students using the immersive storytelling platform GreenVerse.

3 Research Methodology

This section details the methodology followed during the workshops and presents the GreenVerse platform used by the students to create their immersive stories. It also reports on the recruitment of participants for this study, which adhered to the ethical procedures as approved by the UAB ethical committee. In total, two workshops were carried out with four groups of students who took part in the Ítaca campus initiative, which seeks to promote the use of Catalan among secondary school students in the region of Catalonia (Ítaca, n.d.).

3.1 GreenVerse Platform

As previously described by McDonagh and Brescia-Zapata (2023), the GreenVerse platform is an interactive 360 storytelling platform created and developed as part of the GreenSCENT project. The platform allows users to create multimedia narratives, integrating static images, 2D non-immersive videos and 360 videos, and a blend of text and audio. Figure 1 illustrates the current landing page of the GreenVerse platform.

Fig. 1
A screenshot of a website's landing page for an interactive 360 storytelling platform called GreenVerse. The platform allows users to create multimedia narratives. The landing page features four sections Citizen Journalism, All Media, Experience, and Explore. Each section has a colorful graphic and a brief description. The platform appears to be user-friendly and visually appealing.

Screenshot from the GreenVerse landing page

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At the time of the workshop in July 2023, the platform was in its Beta version, with some bugs in the system. The workshop therefore served two purposes, to provide researchers with the opportunity to develop an educational workshop on audio description with secondary school students with a particular emphasis on sustainability, and for researchers to test the GreenVerse platform with potential end users, whose results fed back into the design process.

3.2 Workshop Participants

A total of two workshops were held, which involved students, aged between 15 and 16 years old, who were part of the Ítaca campus initiative. In total, 16 of students participated in the workshops, divided into four groups of 3–5 students each. Prior to the workshop, most students were unaware of MA, with little to no experience in creating accessibility features, such as AD, in either traditional or immersive media.

3.3 Design of Workshop

Each workshop followed a similar procedure, comprising ten steps, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Firstly, we introduced ourselves to students using self-descriptions. After this, we introduced the GreenSCENT project, as well as the GreenVerse platform. This introduction served as the foundation for the workshop’s exploration of the interconnections between the concepts of AD and sustainability through immersive media. Using the example of the GreenVerse platform, students were introduced to the concepts of immersive media and asked to create their own 360 stories that addressed issues related to sustainability and accessibility. This involved exploring facets of both concepts, such as responsible consumption, waste management, and environmental education, disability awareness and creating environments that are accessible to blind people. Students were subsequently provided with hands-on experience using 360 cameras.

Fig. 2
A ten-step workflow for a workshop, starting with self-introductions and ending with creating 360 stories addressing sustainability and accessibility issues. The workflow involves introducing students to the GreenScent project and platform, exploring interconnections between A D and sustainability through immersive media, and providing hands-on experience with 360 cameras.

Workshop workflow

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After this step, we divided the students into groups. Each group decided on a name and a topic for their 360 story on the subject of accessibility and sustainability. Students were allocated time to create their own storyboard using a large sheet of paper to visualise their stories. After deciding on their scenarios, each group collected material using the 360 cameras around the university campus. Once students had captured their video and 2D images, we then uploaded this content onto the GreenVerse platform, after which we asked students to organise their scenarios into stories bearing in mind accessibility features, such as AD. Once students had organised their stories and recorded and uploaded their AD, they then presented their stories to the rest of the class, after which they discussed issues related to accessibility and sustainability.

To maximise the overall learning experiences for students, we deliberately withheld information about the prevailing AD norms and guidelines. Instead, we encouraged students to create their own ADs, bearing in mind the potential needs of the end user. The rationale behind this decision was driven by three key considerations. Firstly, Ítaca workshops were practical in nature, so a theoretical discussion about guidelines and standards was out of the scope. Secondly, time constraints prevented a comprehensive introduction to the intricacies of established AD guidelines. Finally, as educators, we were interested in observing how students, with no prior experience of AD, might approach this practice. Understanding where and how they might align or deviate from established AD norms constituted one of the main aims of our research.

4 Analysis

4.1 Student Stories

Due to the open and unrestricted nature of the task, each student group approached it differently. A common practice across all groups was that AD scripts were firstly written in Spanish and later translated into different languages, depending on the language ability of the group. This offered students the opportunity to practice their writing and speaking in languages other than Spanish, including Catalan, English, French, and German.

Group 1 focussed on accessibility barriers across the campus for blind students, highlighting the lack of accessible resources in the library, cafeteria, multimedia rooms, and overall university infrastructure. The aim of this AD was to raise awareness of accessibility issues across the university campus and suggest possible ways in which to improve it, for example, through the consistent use and placement of braille across the campus. While the AD included important visual information, it also provided guidance on how to improve the accessibility of the university campus, thereby going beyond the norms of established AD guidelines, which are normally solely focussed on describing the visual scene. In contrast, the AD of the first group functioned as both an informative and operative text type (Reiss, 1981), describing the visual scene while also raising awareness of the issue of accessibility across the university campus (Fig. 3 and Table 2).

Fig. 3
A photograph of a library with signage that reads, limited resources, possible solutions in Braille available, pointing towards the cafeteria.

Screenshot from scene 1 in the story created by Group 1

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Table 2 Audio descriptions by Group 1
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Similar to Group 1, Group 2 focussed on providing practical solutions. However, both groups differed in their approach. While Group 1 focussed more on accessibility for university students, Group 2 placed a stronger emphasis on sustainability, specifically tailored to young children. Rather than adhering to established AD conventions, Group 2 went beyond these norms, creating a gamified approach that blended educational content with interactive elements. The group incorporated simple and creative instructions on waste disposal to educate children about sustainable practices in an engaging and interactive manner. While Group 1 provided an English and Catalan translation of their AD, Group 2 expanded their potential reach by translating their AD into French (Fig. 4 and Table 3).

Fig. 4
A screenshot of a scene featuring a man seated at a table with a tablecloth. The glass wall behind him displays text in French.

Screenshot from scene 1 in the story created by Group 2

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Table 3 Audio descriptions by Group 2
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Group 3 focussed their immersive story on the subject of sustainable practices, developing a series of scenarios in different locations across the university campus that showcased good and bad examples of these practices. Mirroring Group 1’s approach, Group 3 translated their ADs into both English and Catalan, touching on diverse subjects such as littering, consumer habits, and transport. Group 3 focussed on education, guiding viewers through sustainable practices in a clear and informative manner in their AD, which functioned as both an informative and operative text type (Reiss, 1981). Deviating from traditional AD standards that prioritise objectivity, Group 3 included evaluative statements, offering personal opinions and perspectives on sustainable practices. This departure from conventional AD norms reflected their willingness to engage in advocacy and encourage viewers to follow sustainable practices (Fig. 5 and Table 4).

Fig. 5
A photograph captures a train on tracks with a person standing on a platform, alongside a sign displaying A D, a chain-link fence adorned with graffiti, a person walking on a sidewalk, a tree with lush green leaves, and a building in the background.

Screenshot from scene 3 in the story created by Group 3

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Table 4 Audio descriptions by Group 3
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Group 4 based their immersive story in three different locations across the university campus: the train station, library, and cafeteria. In each setting, they highlighted some sustainable practices that students could incorporate into their daily routines. At the train station, they highlighted the benefits of using a reusable travel card, instead of disposable paper tickets. This simple change, they argued, could reduce waste and contribute to a more sustainable campus. In the library, Group 4 underscored the advantages of digitising books, which could eliminate the need for physical books. Finally, at the cafeteria, they encouraged students to use reusable containers to help minimise the use of single-use plastics. Again, like the previous groups, Group 4 departed from traditional AD norms by incorporating evaluative statements and personal opinions, which ultimately shifted the nature of the AD into a call to action rather than simply scene description (Fig. 6 and Table 5).

Fig. 6
A photograph of a library with two people standing near a cart.

Screenshot from the story created by Group 4

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Table 5 Audio descriptions by Group 4
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4.2 Quantitative and Qualitative Data

After the workshops, a brief questionnaire designed to assess the effectiveness of the activity was sent to all participants, including students and instructors. This survey was designed by Ítaca and sought to gather insights into the participants’ experiences. The completion of the questionnaire was voluntary, and the results are shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7
A horizontal bar graph illustrates feedback from instructors and students. Instructors received the highest ratings of 10 in doubts and contributions, active participation, and positive attitudes. Students rated explanations highest at 9.5.

Evaluation of the students and instructors who participated in the GreenSCENT activity

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In general, the workshops were well received by both instructors and students, who responded positively to the workshop activities and content. Both explanations and content comprehension obtained similar results, indicating a satisfactory level of clarity and effectiveness of the workshops. Doubts and contributions and active participation reveal a highly participatory environment and almost perfect score. This suggests that the facilitators successfully created an atmosphere where participants felt comfortable asking questions and contributing to discussions. In this sense, positive attitude is also a critical metric for evaluating the overall learning atmosphere. Instructors maintained a perfect score of 10 out of 10, contributing to a favourable environment. Students scored the activity 8 out of 10, suggesting a generally positive attitude despite some room for improvement. While students’ interest in the workshops scored 7.5 out of 10, indicating a moderate level of engagement, the lack of data from instructors limits our ability to fully assess their perceived interest level.

In summary, while Fig. 7 provides a snapshot of participants’ feedback, a more comprehensive analysis involves delving deeper into the nuances of the data. The differences in scores between instructors and students, as well as the absence of certain data points, underscore the complexity of the teaching and learning dynamics. Addressing these variations and gaps is crucial for refining our approach, optimising participant experiences, and ensuring the continued success of our workshops.

5 Discussion and Conclusion

Given the inherent challenges of the 360 environment and the limited experience of workshop participants in AD practice, there were some deviations from established AD norms, specifically related to content selection. Traditional AD guidelines emphasise the importance of objectivity and neutrality (Snyder, 2010), aiming at providing a comprehensive overview of the visual content. However, in the context of immersive media, these conventions are not entirely applicable. The 360 format of immersive media presents several challenges for the audio describer, who must navigate the dynamic and interactive elements of the content. Unlike traditional 2D media, where the focus is fixed, the interactivity of 360 content makes it difficult to determine exactly what to describe. To address this challenge, workshop participants adopted a storytelling approach, focussing on their core message rather than attempting to describe every element in the visual field. The AD therefore served a specific narrative function, namely, to inform and educate the viewer on steps that they can take in their daily lives to be sustainable and accessible.

Despite the deviations from established norms, the workshops carried out as part of this study revealed the potential of AD practices to evolve in response to the changing media landscape. The storytelling approach adopted by participants not only addressed the intricacies of 360 content but also aligned with the goal of fostering engagement and awareness. This departure from strict objectivity towards a narrative-driven approach reflects an evolving landscape where the principles of AD can be adapted to meet the demands of evolving media forms.

A relevant aspect arising from the workshops was the use of translation as a means to produce ADs in multiple languages. While not a novel practice, its benefits in terms of time consumption, cost-effectiveness, and the overall quality of AD are highlighted, as noted by Jankowska (2015).

In addition to these considerations, the AD of 360 formats presents further challenges due to the abundance of visual information, surpassing that of standard AD (Fidyka & Matamala, 2018). The absence of established guidelines for AD in immersive environments underscores a critical academic gap. While some efforts have been made to understand how to integrate AD within immersive environments (Montagud et al., 2020), there is still a need for more extensive testing and research in this domain to develop guidelines and standards.

The results of the workshops reinforce the efficacy of AD as a pedagogical tool for educators. Beyond its primary role in providing accessibility, AD also enhances students’ proficiency in translation, visual awareness, and storytelling techniques. Not confined to a singular purpose, AD is a valuable asset in the educational toolkit, facilitating multifaceted skill development among students.

In conclusion, our exploration of the challenges and adaptations of AD in 360 environments highlight the dynamic nature of this practice. As the landscape of immersive media continues to evolve, so too must AD principles and guidelines. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse, emphasising the need for flexible approaches and collaboration to further refine and standardise AD practices across diverse media formats.