In the realm of defense Artificial Intelligence (AI), Italy undeniably finds itself as a latecomer, but it is determined to catch up. Italy’s strategy revolves around narrowing its gap with other countries, and it forms an integral component of its wider initiatives for the digitalization and digitization of the country and more specifically of its Armed Forces. The Italian government views AI as both a potential asset that can enhance its capabilities and a potential threat. The former perspective has been instrumental in the government’s dedication to preserve human involvement in decision-making processes, a concept commonly referred to as keeping humans in the loop, all while pursuing modernization efforts. However, Italy issues a warning regarding the integration of AI with other disruptive and emerging technologies, such as robotics and unmanned vehicles. Such integration could, on the one hand, be used to enhance national military capabilities, but, on the other hand, it could present new difficulties for the Italian Armed Forces as well as new challenges for the industrial sector and economic stability. Overall, Italy views defense AI as a new force enabler, something that could improve the capabilities of the Italian Armed Forces on the battlefield through sophisticated sensors and automation, data fusion, and decision-making support.

Italy’s commitment to digitize and modernize its Armed Forces dates to early the 2000s. The so-called Forza NEC (Network Enabled Capabilities) program has been running an extensive procurement and digitalization process since 2007 (Nones & Marrone 2011). By integrating new and old military assets “into network,” it seeks to modernize, digitize, and integrate the Italian Armed Forces by 2031 to improve their capabilities for computation, information exchange, communication, and situation awareness. Additionally, in 2021, the Italian Ministry of Defense (MoD) allocated €190M for a program focused on AI development and improvement for the period 2021–2035. Even though the design, development, and implementation of defense AI parts and components are included in numerous programs (national and multinational) which Italy funded over the same period, this is probably the only project that is exclusively focused on defense AI. Some programs that involve the partial use of AI or AI-supported technologies are the Global Combat Air Programme (GCAP), the Future Combat Naval System, the Safe Soldier System, and the Robotics and Autonomous Systems Experimentation Campaign (RAS) among others.

It is noteworthy that the Italian Armed Forces are working cooperatively and synergically on their major projects with the country’s entire AI ecosystem, which consists of academic institutions, civil and military research labs, startups, and private and public high-tech firms. As a prime contractor, system integrator, and systems authority for the architectural requirements, Leonardo, for instance, has been heavily involved in all phases of the Forza NEC program.

Finally, the majority of Italian defense AI development projects are designed with the goal of optimizing resources and ensuring integrability and interoperability both among the branches of the Italian Armed Forces as well as among NATO allies and platforms—this is also true for AI and training simulations. The Italian Armed Forces have set some specific and very ambitious goals for 2035, but it remains to be seen whether they will be able to meet them by that deadline.

1 Thinking About Defense AI

AI is a critical technology for both commercial and military applications. Commercial companies such as Google, NVIDIA, Alphabet, Amazon, Meta, and IBM are market leaders in AI technologies applied to projects such as autonomous vehicle guidance systems, processing software, e-commerce search algorithms, social networks, targeted advertising, virtual reality, visual tracking systems, and many others. In fact, many experts and practitioners believe that the defense industry and military organizations are lagging (at least in some sectors), but they are catching up quickly. Today, most of the world’s medium and great powers recognize that defense AI will be a key strategic technology in future conflicts as well as in global competition in general.

Italy has officially acknowledged the importance of developing and applying AI in defense. Despite being a latecomer, both the Italian government and its Armed Forces (Esercito Italiano, Marina Militare, and Aeuronautica Militare) have listed AI as one of the key technologies in which the country must invest now and in the future in their official documents. Accordingly, Italy is planning a development and funding program for AI and other related technologies (Ministry of Defense 2021).

Former Defense Minister Lorenzo Guerini issued the Documento Programmatico Pluriennale della Difesa per il Triennio 2021–2023 (Pluriannual Defense Planning Document for the Three Years 2021–2023) in 2021. This document detailed and contextualized Italy’s efforts to invest in emerging and disruptive technologies such as AI, augmented reality (AR), robotics, big data, quantum computing, and direct energy systems. It also stated that these technologies are urgent and priority investments, emphasizing the need to exploit and investigate the potential applications of these new technologies to operate efficiently in the cyber-domain.

In 2019, the Italian Army General Plans Department Plans Office (GPDPO) published the document “Future Operating Environment post 2035—Implications for Land Forces,” which was part of the “conceptual work conducted by the Army” with the goal of “identifying the principal actors and the nature of the future environment in which land forces may be called upon to operate” (GPDPO 2019: 2). The paper sought to “describe hypothetical scenarios and the main challenges which the Army will confront” and “find possible solutions that will be able to drive the process of capability development in support of Defense” (GPDPO 2019: 2). Furthermore, the document provides a brief overview of the current scenarios and challenges that Italian ground units are likely to face on modern battlefields. The Italian Army views AI as both a technology to be exploited and a potential source of future danger. Italian land units, in particular, may face new threats such as swarms of drones and AI-enabled robots. Simultaneously, AI is listed as one of the “new and potentially revolutionary technologies” or “game changers” that the Italian Army must develop and exploit in the future to enhance its capabilities and the safety of its personnel (GPDPO 2019: 2–13).

The other branches of the Italian Armed Forces share a similar view: both the Italian Air Force and the Italian Navy are committed to developing a new approach for Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) missions through the integration of manned and unmanned systems, which necessitates the application of AI technology. They specifically foresee the use of AI for autonomous surveillance, automatic target recognition, and teams of manned and autonomous vehicles. In this regard, the participation of Italy in the GCAP is telling (Italian Government 2022; UK Ministry of Defense 2021).

Overall, the Italian Armed Forces, as well as defense companies such as Leonardo, are involved in several programs that necessitate the use of AI to develop and integrate modern sensors and platforms, both manned and unmanned. The Eurodrone MALE RPAS (Medium Altitude Long Endurance remotely piloted air-craft system) and the Future Combat Naval System are two prominent additional examples (PESCO Secretariat Undated-a; Italian Navy 2021). Since 2007, Italy has also been undergoing an ambitious procurement and digitalization process as a result of tight collaboration between the military and industrial sectors (Leonardo Undated-d). For instance, the Forza NEC program integrates the roles of “system integrator” and “prime contractor” in a single actor—Finmeccanica-SES—and involves a wide number of national companies such as MBDA Italia, Oto Melara, AugustaWestland, Elettronica, Iveco DV, Engineering, CIO—Consorzio Iveco-Oto Melara, Leonardo-Finmeccanica, Beretta, Sistemi Compositi, and Aerosekur.

1.1 Defining AI

Not humans against AI, but humans working with AI.

(Defense General Staff 2021: 41)

In 2021, the Italian Defense General Staff (Stato Maggiore Difesa) identified emerging and disruptive technologies such as AI that “are modifying and influencing society, the economy, politics, and the military world” (Defense General Staff 2021: 74). Even though the Defense General Staff did not provide an explicit definition of AI, we can infer it from the Italian Armed Forces’ documents. Like some common definitions in the field, the Italian Armed Forces regard AI as a set of hardware and software capable of providing computers with capabilities and performance commonly believed to be the exclusive domain of human intelligence.

Moreover, AI is considered a supportive technology, a sort of force and capacity multiplier that supports the work of soldiers and officers. Despite acknowledging the importance of emerging technologies, particularly in AI applications, the Italian Armed Forces are committed to keeping the human operators at the center of the loop in military operations (GPDPO 2019: 8–9). As a result, the Italian Armed Forces consider AI as an enabler that will improve their performance and decision-making ability (human in the loop), rather than a technology which will completely replace humans. However, the Italian Defense General Staff takes into account the possibility that in the near future some tasks will be carried out autonomously by AI under the supervision of the human being (human on the loop) and, they do not exclude a priori the possibility that in a more distant future, AI could even operate without human action in the management process (human out of the loop).

The Italian Navy shows more concern than the other services in fully automating its operations and platforms. The Navy’s core value of multiple redundancies makes it seem impossible to them at the moment to take human control away from some crucial processes and activities. In this regard, according to the Navy, human control is essential due to the maritime domain’s unique challenges in comparison to others. The Italian Navy is, on the other hand, gradually implementing drones, modifying current naval units to make use of remotely piloted aerial vehicles (RPAs), and creating new units with these technologies in mind.

1.2 The Role of AI in Italy

The Italian AI ecosystem consists of a wide number of Research Technology Organizations (RTO), defense, and non-defense companies. The complex and varied set of actors also includes universities and research centers, governmental organizations, state-owned as well as private-owned companies, and startups. The Agency for Digital Italy (Agenzia per l’Italia Digitale) in collaboration with the Italian Association for Artificial Intelligence (Associazione Italiana per l’Intelligenza Artificiale) registered in the period between 2017 and 2020 the following data: 20 Universities, 19 Research Centers, 92 Companies, 6 Public Administration entities and 51 startups (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
A pie chart of the 5 relative number of actors in Italy's AI ecosystem. Companies top with 49%, followed by startups with 27%, universities with 11%, research centers with 10%, and public administration entities with 3%.

Relative number of actors in Italy’s AI ecosystem. Source: Agenzia per l’Italia Digitale in collaboration with Associazione Italiana per l’Intelligenza Artificiale, 2017–2020. Authors’ pie chart

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Additionally, one of the most significant multinational Italian companies, Leonardo, invested in dedicated research facilities for AI and related technologies and processes. In particular, Leonardo is concentrating its effort and resources in areas such as “system autonomy through Swarm Intelligence techniques; algorithms for unmanned systems; command and control systems; cognitive sensors and resilience systems; cyber security systems; signal processing in radars through to war-gaming and simulation systems; industrial process optimization; and predictive maintenance” (Leonardo Undated-c).

The Italian government released its “Strategic Program on Artificial Intelligence 2022–2024” in 2021, outlining its goals for the field as well as discussing the advantages and disadvantages of its AI ecosystem (Italian Government 2021). There are four strengths and weaknesses listed in the document. Regarding the latter, the main issues are the parceled growth of research labs, a poor ability to attract talent, a significant gender gap among its members, and finally, a limited number of patents. Research centers, education and training, physical and digital assets, and communities provide some of the advantages of the Italian AI ecosystem:

  • First, Italian researchers are very active and primarily employed by public research institutions like the National Research Council (CNR) and research foundations like the Fondazione Bruno Kessler or the Italian Institute of Technology, as well as university research labs. They cover a broad range of AI technologies, including “Machine/Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing (NLP), Data Mining, Big Data analytics, Embedded AI, Human aspects in AI, Knowledge Representation and Symbolic Learning, Decision Support Systems, Agent-based systems, and Trustworthy AI” (Italian Government 2021: 5).

  • Second, the report notes that Italy is making assertive investments in training and education. There are currently more than 200 AI curricula available at 50 different universities across the country. To boost the training of researchers, innovators, and professionals in the field of artificial intelligence, the Italian government recently launched its National “Artificial Intelligence” PhD Program. According to the official document, the program “has awarded 200 PhD scholarships with a budget of €16M” (Italian Government 2021: 5).

  • Third, Italy can rely on top-tier research infrastructure and assets including the CINECA-INFN Infrastructure for HPC, CNR-High Performance Artificial Intelligence Center HP-AI, and finally, the new IIT HPC infrastructures that are part of the 2020–2023 Strategic asset in AI and Machine Learning.

  • Finally, Italian experts participate in all the major international AI research networks, including CLAIRE, ELLIS, HumanE-AI-Net, TAILOR, AI4ME-DIA, ELISE, and VISION. As a result, Italy has a vibrant and dynamic AI research community. Additionally, Italy is among the founding members of the Global Partnership on AI (GPAI).

The Italian Armed Forces, which are currently focusing on defense AI, fully understand and recognize the need to develop AI-driven and AI-supported military technologies and operate them in modern conflicts. Today, the battlefield is more complex than ever, and soldiers receive a massive amount of data that must be aggregated, fused, filtered, processed, and understood in real-time. This is made possible by the integration of modern sensors and technologies. Military personnel require the assistance of AI and machine learning at every stage of the procedure to achieve this goal and to identify and interpret data that are even larger in volume, faster, and more complex than in the past.

In military operations, AI’s computational power will facilitate and support the work of the soldiers, and through simulations and probabilistic calculations, it will also help the officers make decisions. Leonardo, for example, established a research team to AI-enhanced “solutions to develop systems that support forecasting and decision-making processes” (Leonardo Undated-b).

Given that commercial companies are responsible for driving technological innovation, the Italian MoD is aware that collaboration with non-defense businesses and organizations is essential to facilitating the transfer of know-how and technology. To foster collaborations with civilian and private businesses, the MoD, among others, plans the establishment of AI-dedicated research centers (Pulcini 2022), as will be discussed more extensively in the following sections.

1.3 Concerns and Opportunities

The Italian Armed Forces have acknowledged the opportunities presented by AI and have worked to determine the best strategy for utilizing them. Two key documents have been created in this regard by the Italian Defense General Staff and the Italian Army Headquarters General Plans Department Plans Office.

The former has identified several AI employments. It has acknowledged that, even though AI has grown to be a crucial technology for the military and defense industry, it is still impossible to predict the exact course of this technology. At the same time, however, the Defense General Staff claims that AI will simplify complex logistics and demanding maintenance, improving readiness and agility; increase computational capabilities, enabling armed forces to analyze adversaries’ decisions more quickly and more effectively; and enhance the management of remotely piloted vehicles, enabling autonomous and coordinated operations, including the integration of a cyber component such as a network of sensors with IoT (Internet of Things) and with IoBT (Internet of Battlefield Things) (Italian Defense General Staff 2021).

The Italian Defense General Staff has also acknowledged some concerns that AI raises related to how it would make part of the workforce redundant, thus requiring effort to help them reintegrate into the job market. Other issues have been clarified by a document created by the Italian Army Headquarters General Plans Department Plans Office. Accordingly, military personnel will specifically need to learn how to deal with emerging and disruptive technologies (such as robots with artificial intelligence, swarms of drones, nanotechnology, alternative energy, and psychological operations) and how to coexist with them and manage the process of technological innovation (GPDPO 2019).

2 Developing Defense AI

Given the fact that Italy is lagging behind in AI compared to other middle powers, the Ministry of Defense (MoD) has launched a very ambitious program to catch up. Overall, the Ministry of Defense wants to provide the Armed Forces with digital platforms that are integrated with robotic systems and are capable of quickly and effectively receiving, processing, and sharing information at the tactical, operational, and strategic levels (Ministry of Defense 2021).

Within the MoD, the General Secretariat of the Defense, and the National Directorate for Armament, oversee the development of military AI and other military technologies. The MoD is committed to meet the requirements of the various Armed Forces and make sure that the technologies comply with the principles of interoperability, interchangeability, and integration. In addition, it is responsible for outlining which technologies are the most urgent to invest in. For instance, autonomous systems, cyber capabilities, space, command and control, and multi-domain situation awareness technologies are some of the areas recognized as top priorities by the MoD.

Since the 2002 Prague Summit, NATO members have pursued the digitization of their armed forces, through the so-called Network Enabled Capabilities (NEC). With this acronym, “NATO expressed the idea of ‘enabling the capability’ of combining heterogeneous elements—doctrinal, procedural, technological, organizational and human—into a single network, in order to achieve, through the interaction of these elements, strategic superiority in military operations” (De Zan 2016: 115). Consequently, in 2007 the Italian MoD started a procurement and digitalization inter-force program to meet this requirement and to modernize its armed forces. The Forza NEC program is to be completed by 2031 with an expected cost of €22bn (Table 1).

Table 1 Forza NEC program phases
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2.1 Current Defense AI

Italy’s defense AI lag has several, technological and economic root causes. There is “an evident gap” between Italian national capabilities and those of comparable countries, such as in AI, quantum computing, cyber defense, and microprocessors, as acknowledged in the Pluriannual Planning Document 2021–2023 of the MoD (Ministry of Defense 2021: 138). Accordingly, the MoD and the Ministry of Homeland Security are committed to catching up with state-of-the-art AI. In 2013, the Center for Advanced Studies in Defense (CASD) reported that Italy was investing relatively little in R&D for defense in comparison to other countries (Lt Col Dotoli 2015). But the same report also emphasized how the government had supported initiatives meant to encourage technological innovation and information exchanges among various sectors, including research facilities, ministries, the armed forces, universities, and both public and private businesses (Ministry of Defense 2015).

Since 2013, several documents published by the research centers of the Italian Armed Forces have underlined the need to allocate more funds for technological innovation. But only recently, starting in 2019, have the most significant incentives emerged. In this regard, it has not helped that government defense spending decreased between 2008 and 2015, despite an increase in the proportion of government spending on R&D from 0.95% to 1.53% of GDP (Worldbank Data Undated-a, b).

2.2 Defining AI Structure and Organization

The MoD manages, plans, and coordinates military research and development. The General Secretary for the Defense is specifically responsible for facilitating and encouraging collaboration between the government and businesses, whether they are military or commercial, domestic, or international. In addition, the Fifth Directorate of the Secretariat General of and the National Armaments Directorate (SGD/DNA) work to expand the MoD’s knowledge base in high-tech fields so that Italy can participate in future national and international defense programs.

The SGD/DNA conduct assessment and planning regarding R&D in defense, which entails gathering and coordinating ideas and proposals from academic institutions, research centers, private companies, and the MoD itself. The SGD/DNA then integrates the National Plan for Military Research is then integrated with these concepts and recommendations. Furthermore, the SGD/DNA also aims to strengthen and broaden international cooperation within the EU and NATO.

Finally, the Center for Innovation in Defense, a significant organization within the Stato Maggiore Difesa (Defense General Staff), is tasked with ensuring and promoting the conceptual and doctrinal development and upgrading necessary to enable the transformation of the military. This center is specifically in charge of fostering innovative strategic thinking to determine the aims, directions, and priorities of technological development.

2.3 Main Defense AI Projects

Before examining the main defense AI projects of the Italian Armed Forces, it is crucial to remember that Italy has been taking part in many multinational projects as a member of NATO and the EU, and that some of the most ambitious and cutting-edge programs are conducted in cooperation with other nations. In this regard Italy’s participation in the EU’s Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) is telling as it coordinates 8 projects and participates in 26 projects related to developing shared and enabling capabilities, the cyber sector and the Command, Control, Communication, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) sector. Additionally, Italy participates in projects dedicated to unmanned vehicles, aircraft, naval units, and space systems. In one way or another, all these projects require the support, application, and development of AI tools. Due to its involvement in so many multinational projects and operations, Italy will need to adhere to the interoperability standards set by both the EU and NATO (NATO 2022).

2.3.1 Joint

The Italian Armed Forces’ multi-year funding program for AI 2021–2035 is one of their most ambitious projects. The goal of this joint initiative is to connect and network the research and experimentation facilities of the various military services. Additionally, the project seeks to foster and support collaboration between the network and civil research organizations specialized in AI. A portion of the resources allotted for this program will be dedicated to acquiring tools, creating, and modernizing physical spaces, and supporting cooperation agreements between the MoD and non-military research institutions such as universities and specialized centers (Ministry of Defense 2021).

2.3.2 Army

The Future Soldier Program, now known as Safe Soldier System, and the Robotics and Autonomous Systems (RAS) Experimentation Campaign are at the core of the Italian Army’s initiatives, and both envision the exploitation of AI and AI-supported technologies.

The Safe Soldier System aims to provide infantry units with enhanced capabilities while also modernizing their weapons and equipment through the implementation of new hardware and software. For example, in 2020 the Army purchased 20,000 electronic systems for individual control and situational awareness to improve its soldiers’ capacity to gather, process, and share real-time information while on the battlefield (Ciocchetti 2020). The Safe Soldier System program aims also to improve infantry protection, survival skills, C2 integration, nocturnal mobility, and lethality, providing them with advanced situational awareness capabilities. Furthermore, “the system allows, through digitized C2 devices, the joint use of the platform, ensuring maximum operation in all scenarios, from combat to population support, always remaining ‘connected’ to the net-centric architecture” (Italian Army Undated).

The RAS experimentation campaign represents the second main project and aims to improve human-machine interaction and manned-unmanned teaming. The goal is to enhance the situational awareness capabilities of ground units, particularly during operations in urban areas, through the cooperation and the synergistic employment of new advanced sensors. The Army Innovation Office oversees the program. Despite not being directly involved in R&D, this office is in charge of understanding the most effective way to employ the technology that is developed by specialized centers in order to enhance military capabilities. The Army Innovation Office serves as a sort of bridge between technological development and operational activity. The RAS campaign specifically seeks to comprehend how to improve human-machine teaming by determining how robotic and autonomous systems can generate operational advantages in support of the ground forces’ core (Lt. Col. Vito Marra 2022). In December 2021, the Italian Army finalized a contract with the Estonian company Milrem Robotics that joined the program as technological partner. In March and May 2022, two training activities have been carried out employing the digital platform models provided by the Milrem Robotics.

2.3.3 Air Force

Italy is involved in the development of two important multinational platforms that will be used by its air force: the MALE RPAS PESCO project, also known as Eurodrone, and the Global Combat Air Program (GCAP), which will merge two previously separated sixth-generation fighter-jet projects.

The GCAP was preceded by the Future Combat Air System (FCAS) program which was led by the United Kingdom with the collaboration of Italy and Sweden. The project, also known as Tempest program, aimed at developing a sixth-generation fighter jet and involving first-tier aerospace companies such as BAE Systems, Rolls-Royce, Leonardo UK and MBDA UK (Leonardo Undated-a). Tempest aspired to be a state-of-the-art jet fighter fully integrated with cutting-edge technologies like deep learning, swarming drones, direct-energy weapons, and more. Some claimed that the Tempest would have become “the most cutting-edge aircraft in the world” given its alleged capabilities and specifications (Kenealey 2020). Specifically, the cockpit would have been revolutionized, and the conventional controls would have been replaced by “augmented and virtual reality displays inside the visor of the helmet, which would be fully customizable” (Kenealey 2020). In addition, the human-machine teaming would have improved pilots’ performance, assisting them making instantaneous decision, and carrying out critical flight maneuvers. Finally, Tempest would have embodied the so-called cooperative engagement capability, that is, “the ability to cooperate on the battlefield, sharing sensor data and messages to coordinate attack or defense” with both manned and unmanned systems (Mizokami 2018). However, the UK started a close cooperation with Japan on developing key aircraft components such as engines and radar demonstrators (Kelly et al. 2022). In 2022, the program was officially merged with the Japanese Mitsubishi F-X into the GCAP, envisioning a tight collaboration between UK, Italy, and Japan (Chuter 2022).

The MALE RPAS PESCO project aims to develop a next-generation Medium-Altitude Long-Endurance drone with ISTAR capabilities (European Commission 2021). The Eurodrone will have advanced ISR and data processing capabilities thanks to the application of new sensors and AI-supported technologies. The project involves top-tier European defense firms such as Airbus, Dassault, and Leonardo, as well as other Italian firms like Avio and Elettronica Group. Thanks to its cutting-edge sensors and communication systems, the Eurodrone will be fully integrated with other military platforms and will improve EU Joint ISR capabilities as well as carry out homeland security operations, international conflict prevention, and crisis management.

2.3.4 Navy

The Italian Navy’s primary defense AI initiatives aim to develop and field new technologies for unmanned systems and maritime surveillance. The Navy is trying to reduce the gap with other countries in unmanned and autonomous technologies, as only a few Italian ships have been modernized to host and operate unmanned aerial, surface, and underwater vehicles.

The Navy aims to purse this goal by both developing new platforms that already possess these capabilities and modernize legacy platforms. The Navy emphasizes the need to catch up technologically to protect national interests in both territorial and international waters while acknowledging that Italy is a latecomer in this field (Seminar, Capt. Quondamatteo and Capt. Vignola 2022). Specifically, by integrating, storing, and analyzing a large volume of different types of data (data fusion), the Navy believes that unmanned surface, underwater, and aerial vehicles will improve its ISR capabilities guaranteeing an all-domain all-weather coverage over its operational areas.

The Naval Future Combat System 2035 policy paper outlines the primary threats that the Italian Navy will encounter over the coming years and “summarizes the vision of the Armed Force on the Maritime Instrument of the future.” According to this document, future Italian efforts will need focus on AI, big data, quantum, robotics, unmanned systems, innovative materials, hypersonic and direct energy weapons, and biotechnologies (Italian Navy 2021; Ciocchetti 2022).

Among other projects worthy of attention, it is possible to list the new European Patrol Corvette (EPC), the Harbour And Maritime Surveillance & Protection (HARMSPRO) PESCO project, the new offshore vessels, the and the new destroyers. Italy is the coordinator of HARMSPRO, which aims to provide member states with the capabilities to surveil and protect specified maritime areas such as harbors, littoral waters, and sea lines of communication fielding “an integrated system of maritime sensors, software and platforms (surface, underwater and aerial vehicles), which fuse and process data, to aid the detection and identification of a range of potential maritime threats” (PESCO Secretariat Undated-b). With regard to the new destroyer, it aims at the development and deployment in the coming years of a comprehensive anti-ballistic and anti-hypersonic missile capability to defend national territory and population.

3 Organizing Defense AI

As discussed above, the Italian Armed Forces organize current and upcoming projects both jointly and individually (single service) in accordance with the tasks needed to accomplish. On the one hand, the SGD/DNA coordinates the major AI programs, which are jointly developed and operated by the Armed Forces. As a result, they simultaneously serve the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. On the other hand, other projects designed for specific requirements are developed and organized individually. The Robotics and Autonomous Systems Experimentation Campaign (RAS) of the Army, and the Advanced Recognition and Exploitation System (ARES) of the Air Force, are good examples. While the coordination and centralization of R&D efforts is the primary responsibility of the Secretariat General of Defense, all platforms and systems must also adhere to the requirements for integration, interoperability, and interchangeability. These requirements must be met for the Italian Armed Forces to coordinate their organizational efforts and engage in joint operations with their own different services and allies.

Italy has actively studied the lessons learned and the best practices of its traditional partners and allies, including the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Germany, to improve its organizational and innovation capabilities. As a result, Italy plans to establish a network that will connect all the national players engaged in the development of AI and other technologies deemed to have “strategic value.” The ultimate goal of the Italian MoD is to boost and enhance the innovation process and foster “potential technological discontinuity—an objective aggressively pursued abroad by the renowned Defense Advanced Research Program Agency (DARPA)” (Ministry of Defense 2021).

4 Funding Defense AI

The office for General Joint Planning (Pianificazione Generale Interforze), which oversees the national defense plan, states that the goal of the initiative is to “to create and support an efficient, ready and effective military instrument, sustainable in terms of human and financial resources, perfectly balanced and integrated, with significantly interoperable features in its various components and in a multinational and inter-agency context, functional to a credible deterrence and to express concrete operational capabilities with multi-domain effects” (Ministry of Defense 2021). This type of long-term investment and planning is regulated by the Italian Leggi di Bilancio (Ministry of Defense 2021: 54–56).

By 2026–2028, Italy plans to field most of these investment programs. For 2021, the budget law has refinanced the “Fund relating to the implementation of multi-year investment programs for the needs of National Defense” with a budget of €12.35bn and which runs between 2021 and 2035. According to the Italian government, these measures will mark an “epochal turning point” (Ministry of Defense 2021: 56), providing the Italian Armed Forces with the tools they need to support long-term national efforts in defense needs, country digitalization and technological development. Among others, the main programs include the following projects:

  • Joint: Joint Maritime Multimission System (J3MS), AI Development and Enhancement Programs, Acquisition of Defense Cloud capacity, Multi Data Link Modernization (MDL), European Cooperation Programs, A/R and air and missile defense enhancement and maintenance of the operational capacity of the defense satellites.

  • Army: Infantry Fighting Vehicle (IFV), Leopard Tank Modernization and logistic support, Robotics and Autonomous Systems (RAS), SHORAD GRIFO renovation on CAMM-ER.

  • Air Force: EUROPEAN MALE RPAS, TEMPEST (sixth generation “Combat Air System” now merged into the GCAP), C-27J (Jedi and Praetorian).

  • Navy: Embarked Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), New Destroyers (DDX), New amphibius Units (LXD), European Patrol Corvette (EPC) and the new Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPV).

4.1 Joint Programs

The primary objective of the joint programs outlined in the Documento Programmatico Pluriennale della Difesa 2021–2023 is to develop, modernize, and renew a set of military assets and technologies that are deemed to be of the utmost strategic value by the entire Italian Armed Forces. The document underlines the importance of the development and application of AI to defense platforms and architectures.

Italy has earmarked a €190M budget for the period 2021–2035 to support the development and advancement of AI. This multi-year initiative seeks to establish a network of innovation hubs “that [will] enable the most qualified actors of the technical-operational area of Defense (i.e. the Experimental Centers or in any case the similar realities) to interact synergistically with the world of civilian research specialized in the sector of Artificial Intelligence and, in general, of emerging digital technologies” (Ministry of Defense 2021). These funds will facilitate the establishment of physical spaces and infrastructures, the procurement of tools, and the formalization of partnership agreements with prominent research centers. These agreements, among other benefits, will allow for synergistic collaboration with civilian researchers.

In addition, Italy has allocated funds for other joint programs relevant to develop defense AI applications. Table 2 provides an overview of these programs and the allocated resources.

Table 2 Italian joint programs involving defense-relevant AI applications
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4.2 Army

The Italian Army wants to combine its existing assets (legacy) with cutting-edge platforms and AI technologies. Specifically, by updating and renovating outdated equipment, vehicles, and systems. In addition, the Army intends to improve the abilities of its infantry units by giving them the capacity to receive, share, and process information more quickly and efficiently by equipping them with new sensors and connecting them to the network. Furthermore, through the RAS campaign, the Army is at work to improve the human-machine interaction, through the synergically employment of small tactical unmanned aerial and ground vehicles and infantry units. Table 3 highlights the Army programs that include defense AI applications and the respective allocated resources.

Table 3 Italian army programs involving defense-relevant AI applications
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4.3 Air Force

The Italian Air Force is engaged in two major, highly ambitious and most expensive projects involving AI: the development of the EUROPEAN MALE remotely piloted aircraft system and the Global Combat Air Program (GCAP). Italy has earmarked €1.8bn for the development, procurement, and logistical support of the Eurodrone within the scope of the PESCO project and allocated €2bn for the conceptualization, design, development, and procurement of sixth generation combat air systems. These two initiatives alone constitute approximately 31% of the total budget allocated to the “Fund relating to the implementation of multi-year investment programs for the needs of National Defense” for the period 2021–2035. Table 4 provides further details on additional Air Force programs and their respective budget allocations.

Table 4 Italian air force programs involving defense-relevant AI applications
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4.4 Navy

The Italian Navy’s primary initiatives revolve around the construction of next-generation naval vessels and the modernization of existing systems to ensure compatibility with new platforms, especially unmanned systems. Among these, one of the most significant projects is the development of advanced offshore vessels, with a budget allocation of €1.5bn spanning the period from 2023 to 2035. Additionally, Italy holds the role of coordinator and project member in the European Patrol Corvette (EPC) PESCO project. Lastly, Italy has committed €2.3bn for the development and procurement of new destroyers, with a final estimated cost of €2.7bn. These cutting-edge naval units will be equipped with the latest sensor technology, hardware, and software, enabling them to efficiently transmit, receive, and process vast amounts of data in real-time.

It is also worth to mention that the Italian Navy has also allocated €3M for the Embarked Remotely Piloted Aircraft study and €26M on the Coastal Radar Network.

5 Fielding and Operating Defense AI

At present, the Italian Armed Forces are actively involved in 43 operations across the globe, deploying approximately 16,400 military personnel, with a focus on crisis management and deterring potential threats. Roughly half of these operations are dedicated to the promotion of international security and the maintenance of stability. Italy stands as a significant contributor to missions conducted by NATO and the EU, and it holds the distinction of being the foremost contributor among Western countries to UN missions.

Despite its lag in developing defense AI solutions, Italy’s armed forces have already implemented certain platforms that leverage AI applications. For instance, they are currently utilizing unmanned vehicles for ISR operations. Furthermore, the Secretariat General of Defense and National Armaments Directorate has recently allocated resources for the design and creation of a deep learning model intended to analyze aerial images acquired by drones (SGD/DNA 2022). Additionally, even though the incorporation of Defense AI into technologies such as drones, mixed reality, robotics, big data, and data fusion is still in its nascent stages, numerous significant programs are in progress. These initiatives align with Italy’s overarching strategy to cultivate “an agile and projectable force, technologically advanced and capable to work with its allies in the context of international missions” (Ministry of Defense 2021: 10).

5.1 Army

The Italian Army is enhancing its capabilities in human-machine teaming through the ongoing development of the RAS campaign. This initiative aims to foster greater integration between unmanned vehicles and ground forces. While certain technologies have been deployed, the overarching concept and primary architecture are still in the process of development. Nevertheless, within the Army, infantry units are already employing a diverse array of mini and micro drones, including models such as Sixton, Asio, Spyball, Crex-B, and Raven (MILEX 2018). Furthermore, the Army has incorporated AI-driven software into various aspects of its operations, including command and communication functions. AI is also a valuable component in virtual and mixed reality training activities, contributing to more effective and immersive training experiences.

5.2 Air Force

During the early 2000s, the Italian Air Force embarked on the acquisition of large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from the United States. Specifically, Italy procured and subsequently operated cutting-edge platforms such as the Predator, Reaper, and, most recently, the Global Hawk (NATO variant). In a recent development, the MoD has considered investing in the domestically produced Piaggio P2HH UAV, with the aim of potentially replacing the Predator and Reaper in the future.

Moreover, the Italian Air Force is actively engaged in developing the Advanced Recognition and Exploitation System (ARES), which seeks to create and employ an open-source neural network utilizing data gathered by Predator platforms (CESMA Seminar 2022). The project leverages deep neural network algorithms for real-time object detection and acquisition. By training these algorithms on an unclassified dataset, the Air Force has successfully tested and demonstrated the protentional of AI to automatically recognize and simultaneously identify, track, and classify multiple targets in a theater of operations. The next phase of the project aims to enhance predictive capabilities, empowering the system to make forecasts based on the data it has gathered and classified (Col. Del Vecchio/Lt. Col. Diana 2022).

5.3 Navy

While the Italian Navy currently deploys unmanned vehicles, such as the Camcopter S-100, primarily for patrol missions, the integration of these assets into service lags behind comparable initiatives in Turkey or the United States. The principal objective of the Italian Navy is to develop the capacity to employ drones across three distinct domains: on the sea’s surface, beneath the sea, and on land in conjunction with amphibious units. Specifically, the Navy relies on a trident of capabilities, encompassing the carrier strike group, the amphibious task group, and underwater units along with special forces. Consequently, the primary aim is to seamlessly integrate unmanned vehicles within this trident, thereby enhancing the naval force’s capabilities across all three domains.

6 Training for (and with) Defense AI

The future demands of the Italian Armed Forces envision the ability to collaborate synergistically with machines, harnessing the potential of emerging technologies to elevate the performance of military personnel. Furthermore, this interaction between humans and machines will extend its advantages to training activities within the armed forces. In particular, Italy already relies on a suite of simulation environments and cutting-edge technologies to train its military personnel through various modalities: live, virtual, and constructive (Ministry of Defense 2021: 43/117).

From an Italian perspective, simulated training exercises enable, and will increasingly enable in the future, the armed forces to enhance personnel readiness by using digital platforms, state-of-the-art software, and robotics systems. Moreover, Italy actively promotes collaborative endeavors among its various military branches to optimize resource management and minimize environmental impact. A notable illustration of this commitment is exemplified by the Rotary Wing Mission Training Center (RWMTC) initiative. This initiative seeks to bolster joint training efforts among Italian pilots, striving to establish a unified and mutually shared virtual and constructive simulated environment.

With respect to Italy’s dedicated simulation infrastructure, the armed forces have access to both joint and single-service training facilities and centers. These include the Salto di Quirra Joint Training Area, the Army’s Simulation and Validation Center (CESIVA) in Civitavecchia, the Navy’s Training Center in Taranto, and the Air Force’s Multi-Crew Training Center in Pomezia (Pratica di Mare).

In 2021, Italy initiated the Operational Training Infrastructure (OTI) program, slated for completion by 2033 with an estimated cost of €79.2M. The OTI project is specifically designed to enhance simulated training capabilities by focusing on “the development of an open, modular, persistent, resilient and safe geo-federated architecture aimed at connecting flight simulators, simulation systems and C2 systems to make them interoperable within a single and common synthetic simulation scenario that reproduces operational real, complex, uncertain and highly variable environments” (Ministry of Defense 2021: 130). Furthermore, the program encompasses efforts to enhance and modernize the infrastructure at the Salto di Quirra Joint Training Area.

7 Conclusion

Italy currently trails its counterparts in the realm of defense AI projects. This relative lag can be attributed to several contributing factors, which include a relatively narrow digital base in AI technology overall, a dearth of major AI companies operating within its borders (with very few exceptions), and comparatively limited financial resources. Nevertheless, Italy has intensified its efforts with the objective of narrowing the gap with cutting-edge technology. This endeavor is being pursued through collaborative partnerships with EU and NATO allies, engagement in national digitization programs, and strategic investments in academic research and development.

The Italian approach exhibits both strengths and weaknesses. On the positive side, Italy boasts a network of private and public research institutions with well-established expertise in high-tech fields. Additionally, there exist synergies between government entities, commercial enterprises, and defense companies, along with a couple of leading educational institutions in Europe. However, on the downside, Italy’s public finances limit the availability of substantial funds. Consequently, a question arises as to whether participation in the development of military technologies reliant on AI, such as the GCAP and Eurodrone projects, will provide the country with the requisite experience and know-how to bridge the existing gaps with other countries.

In pursuit of its future capability objectives, Italy has outlined two primary goals: the digitalization (use of digital technologies) and digitization (conversion of information into digital format) of the Italian Armed Forces, to achieve through the Forza NEC program, and the development and modernization of conventional assets, as outlined in the Documento Programmatico Pluriennale 2021–2023. The Forza NEC initiative is focused on establishing networked capabilities across various units, enabling real-time data sharing, seamless transmission, and reception of large datasets, and harnessing advanced computational capabilities. The Documento Programmatico Pluriennale 2021–2023 encompasses a range of investment plans aimed at incorporating AI applications and modernizing legacy assets.

Italy’s extensive involvement in multinational defense projects plays a pivotal role in its strategy to fill the AI gap. This broad participation is influenced by both budgetary constraints and the technological complexity associated with the development process of cutting-edge AI and AI-supported technologies. However, it is important to note that Italy’s reliance on multinational projects may shape the kind of experience and expertise it acquires. Consequently, this could impact the specific defense AI technologies that Italy will develop in the future, as well as the trajectories these technologies may follow.