Multi-use and Multi-vocal Challenges of Preserving Underwater Cultural Heritage in Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

Abstract

The cultural identity of Massachusetts is intrinsically linked to the sea. For hundreds of years, ship-borne trade, migration, whaling, and fishing have tied Massachusetts to a world system of maritime commerce and culture and brought the world back to it through the area that is now Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS). Established in 1992, SBNMS is an 842-square mile area in the mouth of Massachusetts Bay, located 25 miles east of Boston, 3 miles southeast of Cape Ann, and 3 miles north of Provincetown, Massachusetts. Named for Lt. Henry S. Stellwagen, a nineteenth-century Navy surveyor, the sanctuary protects a productive and diverse marine ecosystem which has been the subject of centuries of fishing activity. It is also estimated that 200 shipwrecks rest on the seafloor within the sanctuary’s boundaries, representing more than 400 years of maritime history, industry, and culture (Fig. 6.1).

6.1 Introduction

The cultural identity of Massachusetts is intrinsically linked to the sea. For hundreds of years, ship-borne trade, migration, whaling, and fishing have tied Massachusetts to a world system of maritime commerce and culture and brought the world back to it through the area that is now Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary (SBNMS). Established in 1992, SBNMS is an 842-square mile area in the mouth of Massachusetts Bay, located 25 miles east of Boston, 3 miles southeast of Cape Ann, and 3 miles north of Provincetown, Massachusetts. Named for Lt. Henry S. Stellwagen, a nineteenth-century Navy surveyor, the sanctuary protects a productive and diverse marine ecosystem which has been the subject of centuries of fishing activity. It is also estimated that 200 shipwrecks rest on the seafloor within the sanctuary’s boundaries, representing more than 400 years of maritime history, industry, and culture (Fig. 6.1).

Fig. 6.1

Map of Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. (Courtesy of SBNMS)

6.2 The Problem

SBNMS is one of 15 United States marine protected areas (MPAs) under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA) and 2 marine national monuments under the Antiquities Act within the National Marine Sanctuary System (NMSS) managed by the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS), a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Due to each MPA’s unique differences in settings, resources, and threats, each has a tailored management plan (Lawrence & Marx, 2011; Lawrence et al., 2015; Mires et al., 2020; Harrelson et al., 2022).

As envisioned by Congress in the NMSA, they are not ‘sanctuaries’ in the traditional sense of the word but are multiple-use areas with a mandate to facilitate public and private activities that are compatible with the primary objective of the MPA: resource protection. When SBNMS was designated by Congress, it carried the stipulation that recreational and commercial fishing would be allowed and continue to be controlled under existing fisheries management law. In no small part because fishing is a key component of the maritime history, identity, and economy in New England. There is strong public pressure to continue to allow these activities, and everywhere in SBNMS is currently open to fishing except for a small area (known as ‘the sliver’) that is closed under prior federal fishing law to commercial bottom-tending mobile and fixed gear and overlaps with a closed area in the Western Gulf of Maine. However, these activities have also proven to be destructive to Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) throughout the sanctuary (Meyer-Kaiser et al., 2022b; Harrelson et al., 2022; Mires & Meyer-Kaiser, 2023). In fact, fishing gear impacts were identified as the greatest threat to archaeological resources in the sanctuary (ONMS, 2020; SBNMS, 2021). Figure 6.2 visualises the complexity of the problem, showing the high degree of overlap between the shipwrecks (black dots) with the intensity of commercial fishing activity (background colour range). Therefore, SBNMS managers are left in a difficult and ironic situation: charged to protect resources under the NMSA and the National Historic Preservation Act while also unable to regulate the very activity and equipment that puts them at risk. Finding a solution is the reality, and challenge, SBNMS managers face.

Fig. 6.2

Heatmap with shipwrecks (black dots show approximate locations) overlayed on areas of fishing activity. Red areas indicate high fishing intensity; Green, low intensity. Gray area is ‘the sliver’ with fishing prohibited (SBNMS, 2023a)

6.3 Underwater Cultural Heritage in SBNMS

Sanctuary historic resources, like UCH, refers to all traces of anthropogenic existence and activities with cultural, historical, or archaeological character that have been submerged for a period (UNESCO, 2001). Cultural heritage in general—and UCH specifically here—have an inherent multivocality, which means a single heritage resource in space, place, and landscapes, can be viewed simultaneously in a variety of ways (Graham et al., 2000). This multivocality is part of a dynamic, discursive process that is often filled with contention and dissonance since space, place, and landscape are constantly mutating concepts characterised by a complexity of imagery and symbolism (Pile & Keith, 1997; Osborne, 1998; Brundage, 2000; Graham et al., 2000; Seaton, 2001). Heritage is fundamental to constructs of identity because it allows an individual or group to associate itself with a particular interpretation of the past. Thus, heritage provides social benefits of value but can also underly a particular worldview (Lowenthal, 1996; Rosenzweig & Thelen, 1998; Graham et al., 2000).

Value, like heritage, involves multivocality as various agents (individual or groups) make behavioural choices based on their respective preferences and perspectives. When these preferences conflict, intense feelings arise between competing stakeholders (Graham et al., 2000) and may be heightened because of the dual nature of cultural and economic value. Cultural value is most often associated with ‘non-use’ values of preservation and intrinsic worth whereas economic value places a value on the use or exploitation of a resource.

Archaeology and heritage are strongly associated with each other. The contributions of archaeology to heritage are usually discussed in terms of providing cultural value, such as new information, authenticity, commemoration, symbolism, and continuity of cultural identity and sense of place. Archaeological sites encompass aspects of space, place, and landscape and have been used to reinforce or refute how heritage is perceived or valued (Trigger, 2009; Graham et al., 2000; Kristiansen, 2000; Lipe, 2002; McManamon, 2002; Jameson & Scott-Ireton, 2007).

In SBNMS, there are more than 200 hundred shipwrecks of which 50 have been located, 12 identified, and 7 of those are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places (see Table 6.1 for identified shipwrecks). They are often referred to as time capsules and while this is true, they are also rich databases that may be studied as artefacts themselves, carrier of artefacts, microcosms of maritime cultures and associated systems, sites of trauma and commemoration, or combinations of all the above (Gould, 1983; Murphy, 1983; Lawrence et al., 2015). Careful analysis of shipwrecks has great potential to alter our understanding of local, regional, national, and global communication and interactions, and provide new information about the expansion, trading patterns, and contributions from disenfranchised groups (Watson, 1983; Murphy, 1983; Flatman, 2003).

Table 6.1 List of Identified Shipwrecks within Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary

Shipwrecks are ultimately part of an environmental and ecological system that was never intended to exist. UCH attracts a range of biological organisms and serves as isolated, island-like habitats. UCH is first colonised by microorganisms, which may utilise the novel materials as substrates for metabolic reactions (Price et al., 2020; Hamdan et al., 2021). Invertebrates such as sponges and cnidarians capitalise on the hard-bottom habitats offered by UCH (Perkol-Finkel & Benayahu, 2007; Meyer-Kaiser et al., 2022a). It can take centuries for the community on UCH to match the species composition of the background community (Gravina et al., 2021), and in some cases, structural differences mean the communities never match (Perkol-Finkel et al., 2006). The net effect of UCH is usually an increase in local or regional biodiversity (Paxton et al., 2019).

The use of human-made structures as artificial reefs has been documented since the 1700s. Anthropogenic activities on and around UCH inevitably contribute to site formation over time. In SBNMS, UCH attracts anthropogenic activity primarily from the diving and fishing industries. Diving on shipwrecks ranges from simple visitation and photography to looting and salvage activities. Contact from divers, particularly unskilled individuals with poor buoyancy control, can damage UCH (Siciliano et al., 2016). The diving industry in SBNMS is not large but contains a few key players: locally-owned companies with a loyal base of skilled divers. Because SBNMS is an offshore sanctuary and relatively deep (i.e., 30 m or deeper), the market consists primarily of experienced divers who live locally rather than student divers or tourists. Experienced divers who are aware of sanctuary regulations present a low risk to the integrity of UCH.

Fishing near or on UCH in SBNMS includes trawling, scallop dredging, gillnets, recreational gear, and lobster pots (Harrelson et al., 2022). The history of fishing in SBNMS dates back centuries before the area was designated a sanctuary and is a key facet of heritage in the region. In fact, some families have been involved in the commercial fishing industry for generations. Fishing and livelihoods from the sea are interwoven with cultural identity in Massachusetts and across New England. Today, the lobster and scallop fisheries are major economic forces in the region. Commercial fishers are also organised in strong trade groups, which have a public voice. These include the Massachusetts Lobsterman’s Association, the Northeast Seafood Coalition, and the Cape Cod Commercial Fisherman’s Alliance.

Finally, SBNMS has an obligation under the US National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 to identify, assess, and mitigate any harmful actions and effects of undertakings on historic properties (such as UCH) eligible for or listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). This includes consideration of public views and opinions (Section 106). It assumes responsibility for the preservation of historic resources that fall under its jurisdiction and identify other historic properties eligible for listing on NRHP (Section 110).

Since its inception, SBNMS has used a policy of non-disclosure to try and balanced its dual mandate of protecting UCH and facilitating compatible uses of sanctuary resources. The locations of all known shipwrecks were kept confidential to prevent looting by divers and intentional targeting of shipwrecks for fishing. In 2017, however, it became clear that this policy of non-disclosure was ineffective after intensive scallop fishing occurred on the northwest corner of Stellwagen Bank. Side-scan surveys were conducted to assess the damage to various sites after the season closed. Figure 6.3 illustrates damage to North Star, a modern fishing vessel, which was scattered across the seafloor significantly losing site articulation, integrity, and an unknown number of artefacts. In 2019–2020, a cooperative agreement between ONMS and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution enabled research on three UCH sites in SBNMS (Mires et al., 2020). The project revealed severe fishing damage to multiple sites, including new entanglements of fishing nets that had not been observed during the previous survey in 2009. The primary risk to UCH is commercial fishing activity and gear impacts.

Fig. 6.3

The fishing vessel, North Star, in 2016 before (left) and after a scallop derby in 2017 (right) where the site has suffered wide scattering and dispersal of features due to trawling activity; dredge marks are visible in the debris field. (Image courtesy of SBNMS)

6.4 Impacts

The most obvious impact of fishing on UCH is the entanglement of ghost gear, which damages shipwreck structures. Repeatedly targeting the area exacerbates this problem and puts the UCH at higher risk for permanent loss (Brennan, 2016). For example, sometime between 2009 and 2019, fishing gear ripped almost 40-m² of the fantail-stern from the passenger steamer, Portland, (Fig. 6.4) which sank with an estimated 200 people onboard, during the storm which bears its name, the Portland Gale of 1898. The fantail now lies on the seafloor with remnants of a gillnet draped across it (Mires & Meyer-Kaiser, 2023).

Fig. 6.4

Top: Sidescan of Portland in 2010 with intact stern; Middle: In 2021 with stern missing; Bottom: Photogrammetric model of Portland showing fishing gear draped over and around damaged stern area. (Original Images courtesy of SBNMS; Mind Technology; and Marine Imaging Technologies)

Figure 6.5 shows another example from the Portland Gale, the shipwreck presumed to be the coal schooner King Philip. The side-scan image on the left shows multiple dredge marks running northeast to southwest and on the right, the image clearly shows part of the starboard bow disarticulated from the wreck with dredge marks running over it. Further, lost gillnets or monofilament lines caught on shipwrecks can destroy and unintentionally entangle artefacts, snag, and break structures, and relocate artefacts.

Fig. 6.5

Side-scan image of trawl marks through the possible King Philip shipwreck site (left); and through the ship’s starboard bow section (right)

Ghost gear continues to fish after abandonment in the ocean as fish can become entangled in ghost trawl nets (Ross et al., 2016), and two seals have drowned while caught in a ghost trawl net ensnared on the Patriot shipwreck in 2019 (V. Malkoski, MA DMA, pers. comm.). Fishing gear also impacts biological communities in less obvious ways. Repeated trawling along a shipwreck’s hull damages or scrapes off three-dimensional sessile invertebrates, including sponges and corals that are key foundation species in the community. Areas of shipwrecks with entangled ghost gear have lower species richness and lower evenness than unaffected areas and they tend to be dominated by opportunistic species (Meyer-Kaiser et al., 2022b; Fig. 6.6). Trawling damage to a shipwreck’s structure causes a change in the microhabitats available for colonisation and can lead to shifts in community composition (Mires & Meyer-Kaiser, 2023; Fig. 6.7).

Fig. 6.6

Biological communities and impacts of fishing gear entanglement on the coal schooners Frank A. Palmer and Louise B. Crary. (a) sonar image of the two ships interlocked, courtesy of SBNMS; (b) a horse star (Hippasteria phrygiana) with fluffy anemones (Metridium senile) and sponges (Mycale lingua) on the shipwreck’s hull; (c) dense clusters of hydroids (Ectopleura crocea) and fluffy anemones on monofilament strung between the hulls; (d) a net entangled on a cleat, with hydroids and sponges

Fig. 6.7

Biological communities and impacts of fishing gear entanglement on Portland. (a) a dense population of fluffy anemones (Metridium senile) with entangled fishing gear (bottom left) on the walking beam; (b) a community of anemones and sea stars (Henricia sp.) on the walking beam; (c) fluffy anemones and sponges (Halichondria sp., Mycale lingua) on the aft hull; (d) tunicates (Molgula sp.) and tubed anemones (Cerianthus borealis) on a low-lying part of the shipwreck; (e) Acadian redfish (Sebastes fasciatus) rest on a pile of dinnerware near entangled fishing gear on the starboard side; (f) a stone crab (Lithodes maja) feasts on a cusk (Bromse bromse) that died following entanglement in ghost fishing gear. (All images courtesy of Marine Imaging Technologies)

It is not always clear from examination of UCH whether fishing activity was targeted on the site. Some ghost gear may represent nets that were lost off-site and accumulated on the wreck because of tidal currents. Despite the economic incentive to target dense fish populations, shipwrecks impact the safety of captains and their equipment as well as present a navigational hazard. Entanglement can damage fishing gear, lead to gear loss, or in extreme cases cause smaller fishing vessels to sink (Harrelson et al., 2022). To reduce both intentional and unintentional damage to UCH and increase the safety of captains operating in the area, SBNMS undertook a departure from the previous policy of non-disclosure in the Shipwreck Avoidance Pilot Program.

6.5 Shipwreck Avoidance Pilot Program (SAPP)

In 2018–2021, SBNMS collaborated with NOAA fisheries to implement SAPP. The program involved the disclosure of several shipwreck locations at the beginning of the fishing season along with guidelines for voluntary avoidance with a 110-m buffer zone (Fig. 6.8). In 2018, SBNMS disclosed the locations of 3 modern and 4 historic shipwrecks for the first time in the history of the sanctuary. In 2020, the program expanded to include 4 more shipwrecks and an increased avoidance buffer of 122 m.

Fig. 6.8

Outreach bulletin requesting voluntarily avoidance of listed wreck sites (left); placards that could be placed in wheelhouses as avoidance reminders (middle and right); a QR Code (middle of right-hand panel) takes fishers to a NOAA Fisheries Web site where they can see the site locations and download coordinates to upload into their chart plotters

Data collection for the SAPP included mapping vessel tracks, pre- and post-season side- scan surveys, and interviews with fishing captains. The Automatic Identification System (AIS) and Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) were used to track vessel locations; however, these methods did not provide adequate resolution and coverage to be useful due to technology constraints involving time stamps (VMS) and vessel size requirements (AIS).

Interviews were conducted with 78 scallop, groundfish, and lobster vessel captains to assess the effectiveness of SAPP. Many vessel captains were supportive of the disclosure of shipwreck sites, although most local fishers were already aware of the locations. Mobile gear captains reported that they usually stayed more than 110 m away to reduce gear loss risk. However, some captains, particularly gillnet fishers, admitted to targeting wrecks. Side-scan sonar surveys proved to be the most effective tool for evaluating compliance of the voluntary avoidance buffers. The side-scan showed that compliance was incomplete due to evidence of continual activities (Harrelson et al., 2022).

There was interest among vessel captains to learn more about the shipwreck sites, particularly the human stories associated with them. Some captains felt it was unclear why particular wrecks were being preserved and stated that more historical information could impact their willingness to comply with voluntary avoidance guidelines. Most captains (53%) viewed the sites as having broad historic value or memorial significance, while some (21%) also named the creation of habitat to support fish populations (Harrelson et al., 2022). Some captains had never considered shipwrecks as valuable and thought of them primarily as hazards. Nevertheless, they viewed education about UCH to be an important next step to create a transparent process and develop voluntary guidelines for shipwreck avoidance.

The SAPP illustrated the challenges of protecting UCH in a multi-use environment. Compliance with voluntary avoidance buffers was mixed, and outreach to the fishing industry was challenging. The current sanctuary regulations provide insufficient deterrence for captains to avoid shipwrecks. Some captains also remain unconvinced that shipwreck sites on Stellwagen Bank need protection, although there was broad support for the continued release of wreck locations to aid in vessel safety. Expanded background information that helps illustrate the importance of shipwrecks, both to the sanctuary mission and to captains’ values, could be a useful addition to future notices. Because formal sanctuary efforts to assess and protect important maritime heritage resources are still very much in development, there is a clear need for continued research to help guide best practices (Harrelson et al., 2022).

6.6 Integrating Maritime Heritage Ecology

The fishing captains’ attitudes towards the perceived benefits of preserving shipwrecks and their desire for more information are emblematic of the multi-use and multivocality challenge SBNMS faces with its UCH and current policies. More than twice as many captains recognised the historical value of UCH than the ecological and biodiversity value. The third most common response was ‘no benefit’ (13%), indicating that fishers perceive only two benefits of UCH. Furthermore, only 3 of 78 respondents (<5%) perceived any benefit to researching shipwrecks (Harrelson et al., 2022). However, UCH offers many opportunities to understand ocean processes, and its archaeological and ecological roles are intertwined.

Therefore, SBNMS has adopted Maritime Heritage Ecology (MHE) to help shape their management efforts. MHE is an ‘interdisciplinary research framework that aims to understand the interactive biological, natural, and anthropogenic factors that drive site formation processes and answer critical management questions for UCH’ (Meyer-Kaiser & Mires, 2022). This framework can help integrate the disparate UCH contexts discussed here and hopefully help balance the dual mandate in SBNMS.

For example, the interdisciplinary framework of MHE could help integrate sociological and ecological factors to understand fishing patterns and engage fishers in active protection of key habitats—not just compliance with policies and regulations. Educating them about the importance of UCH habitats for vulnerable species such as cusk (Bromse bromse) and the endangered wolf fish (Anarhichas lupus) could help motivate shipwreck avoidance. Understanding risk-taking behaviours among fishers could also help managers craft incentive programs and ensure policy compliance. Furthermore, sharing of information about UCH, which fishers themselves suggested, will help preserve fishing heritage. The North Star, damaged by scallop fishing in 2017, was a steel clam dredge vessel and one of 45 shipwrecks representing the fishing industry in SBNMS. Engaging fishers in the process of heritage and embracing its multivocality will create a more personal connection to UCH and willingness to preserve these non-renewable resources.

MHE also provides an opportunity to engage other disciplines and technologies for innovative cooperation. For instance, moorings placed on UCH could serve as visual and digital markers of prescribed buffer zones and provide data on real-time conditions at sea. Similar programs already exist within the NMS in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Florida. Moorings become a part of the ecosystem, attract further biodiversity, and provide an anchor point for diving and swimming (Harrelson et al., 2022). Additionally, Massachusetts has a highly active shark monitoring program along the Cape Cod National Seashore, but there is little tracking information in the sanctuary and northwards. UCH could be used to provide data stations for these apex predators to help protect wildlife.

Anthropogenic structures are integral to marine ecosystems. MHE stresses that to protect biodiversity and preserve UCH, a clear understanding of all natural, biological, and anthropogenic processes impacting UCH is necessary. By engaging the fishing community in all components of MHE, SBNMS could build personal connections to the multivocal heritage and ecology of UCH. Interdisciplinary collaboration is needed for healthy fisheries and heritage preservation alike.

6.7 Conclusion

SBNMS is a case study in the multiutility and multivocality of heritage. The use and non-use values of UCH are defined differently by researchers, managers, and stakeholders, creating dissonance in preservation and management (Graham et al., 2000). Education and research in MHE can help build a common foundation and engage the fishing community. Management policies affect the livelihoods of fishers, so it is essential to consider their perspectives. This chapter has focused on fishing because it is the major management challenge in SBNMS, but a comprehensive management plan will engage other user groups, including SCUBA divers and indigenous tribes.

It is clear based on recent research that entanglement of trawl nets, monofilament, and other fishing gear is a major threat to shipwrecks in SBNMS. Protecting archaeological sites and biodiversity alike will require a radius around highly vulnerable UCH free from fishing activity. However, fishing is an economically important industry that provides identity for the Bay State. SBNMS is forced to balance these two competing priorities.

While a moratorium on fishing may be appropriate for NOAA Fisheries authorities to consider, the sanctuary lacks the authority to implement one without going through the entire sanctuary designation process again. It is also important for the sanctuary to avoid becoming a ‘paper park’ that fails in its conservation goals (Relano & Pauly, 2023). Shipwreck protection practices that have been developed in Thunder Bay and Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuaries provide a precedent for SBNMS. The SAPP made great strides in establishing communication with the fishing community and testing the feasibility of voluntary compliance. Expanding this program and exploring technological and infrastructure solutions for shipwreck avoidance will be key components of SBNMS management moving forward (SBNMS, 2023a).

Finally, expanding MHE research in SBNMS is critical to protecting resources. The newly implemented Sanctuary Mapping Initiative (SMI) enlists the help of fishers to conduct side-scan sonar surveys to locate and document shipwrecks and characterise seafloor habitats. Observational and experimental research on biological communities could provide new information on biodiversity hotspots and the role of UCH in supporting fisheries. Interviews and vessel monitoring will show how attitudes and behaviours of fishers affect site formation of UCH. The integrative, interdisciplinary approach of Maritime Heritage Ecology provides a foundation for SBNMS to balance the sanctuary’s dual mandate and become an effective multi-use sanctuary for generations to come.