Keywords

8.1 Introduction

There is an urgent need for a transition to sustainable energy in Africa to provide access to a growing population and to support thriving economies across the continent. The recently published Just Transition expert report (Sokona, 2023) argues that overcoming the current economic challenges in Africa depends on achieving an energy transition and a consistent response to climate change across the continent. They say that “Africa must scale up energy production and access while leapfrogging dirty-energy systems to modern, affordable, renewable energy systems” (p. 5).

The transition to sustainable energy comes together with economic promises, including the possibility of providing universal energy access, halting deforestation challenges related to the use of biofuels, and developing an innovative renewable industry that can provide green jobs (Tănasie et al., 2022). There is a pressing demand for renewable energy specialists with the knowledge and skills to design, instal, and maintain renewable energy systems. The need for renewable energy education and training is ever more present worldwide. Education is crucial in transforming human behaviour to improve energy use and represents a long-term investment in addressing energy-related challenges (Gebremekel et al., 2019). The question is, however, the extent to which current education enables bridging energy delivery with the needs of the communities to require energy access, seeking to build a people-centred energy sector that delivers for the development of the well-being needs of people in different African countries.

In Ethiopia, the energy transition offers multiple opportunities to facilitate economic recovery post-war. While the civil war in Tigray represents a setback for the country’s advancement towards development outcomes, the energy transition has the potential to accelerate recovery. However, one challenge to delivering the energy transition is the development of appropriate skills to participate in the benefits of the green economy and envisage renewable futures at the national, regional, and local levels. This chapter interrogates whether Ethiopia's current educational context is equipped to provide people with those skills.

This chapter starts from the normative point of view that the requirements of energy literacy require diverse skills at different stages, from policymaking to planning, from the construction and delivery of projects to their management. This means there is a need to train people for different jobs at all stages of development. In Ethiopia, engineering education has been the leading provider of energy workers. However, the demands of the energy transition are such that a wide range of professionals are needed. This is a question that requires multi-disciplinary insights. For example, financial managers are required to manage energy companies. Political scientists and social scientists are needed to develop policy. Community managers and sociologists are needed to manage engagement with a range of communities whose needs may need to be understood. Social psychologists may be needed to understand the processes of behaviour change and demand management. Artists have proven to be able mediators of community engagement. In sum, engineering alone cannot provide complete responses to the challenges of the energy transition.

At the same time, the energy transition depends on a range of professionals who enter the sector through professional practice, only sometimes requiring a university education. From jobs in construction to day-to-day management, the green energy sector offers a wide range of opportunities to professionals at all levels. Many of these professionals, however, do not have access to skills development programmes. Finally, the energy transition requires the development of forms of energy literacy for everyone in society as people develop increasing levels of autonomy to engage with the energy sector.

One of the challenges for the green economy has been the dominance of masculinist ideas in the workforce (Clancy & Feenstra, 2019). Women are routinely excluded from the energy sector and not always considered active agents of the energy transition (Pueyo et al., 2017). This is seen in their access to energy engineering education and their absence from the energy industries. Such a lack of attention to social diversity limits the possibilities for an energy transition in many African countries.

What are the energy literacy skills needed for the energy transition in Ethiopia, and how are they met? First, our analysis examines policymakers’ perspectives on the transition and the kind of skills that will be able to meet those demands. Next, the chapter focuses on the field of energy education, interrogating its gaps for the future through a systematic examination of energy engineering programmes in Ethiopia. Third, the chapter examines the delivery of engineering programmes: who are the graduates of those programmes, and what do they do? The analysis suggests that the energy transition requires a wide range of skills and people, but this is not entirely understood from policymakers’ perspectives. This research shows that the current workforce is masculinized, and women tend to be excluded from the energy professions. There is also limited lifelong learning across the sector, which prevents innovation from developing. Finally, existing educational programmes are exclusively technical. In summary, there is an overall focus on engineering that limits broader approaches to the energy transition, especially innovation. The chapter concludes with a reflection on the need to breach the skills gaps of professionals within the energy sector for a transition to sustainable energy.

8.2 Energy Education and Sustainable Energy Transitions

Energy education empowers people to address questions and tackle problems related to energy. The Energy Literacy Framework outlines several “Essential Principles” and a collection of Fundamental Concepts that align with each principle (Brown et al., 2015). Instead of encompassing every aspect of energy understanding, the framework emphasises the fundamental concepts essential for all individuals to make informed energy decisions and engage in public discussions about energy (Brown et al., 2015). The objective for individuals is to develop a solid foundation of energy literacy, enabling them to navigate energy-related topics with greater understanding and engage in informed conversations about energy policy, technology, and sustainability. The framework provides a structured approach to gain the necessary knowledge and skills to make informed decisions regarding energy production, consumption, and conservation. It also promotes critical thinking and empowers individuals to evaluate various energy sources and systems’ environmental, economic, and social impacts. The Energy Literacy Framework is vital in fostering energy education by providing a structured and comprehensive set of principles and concepts that underpin energy understanding for all citizens. It has, however, not been widely adopted across many energy education programmes, many of which remain wedded to fundamentally technical programmes that do not always recognise the wide range of factors that influence an energy transition.

The Energy Literacy Framework focuses on expanding the range of subjects in energy education, essential for delivering the energy transition (see Fig. 8.1). For example, incorporating renewable energy as a subject of study in energy-related topics can serve as a novel way to engage and motivate students, particularly those who are conscious of environmental issues. By exploring the analysis and classification of renewable energy sources and understanding their origins, students develop a deeper understanding of renewable energy and its significance and have the basis to facilitate energy innovation. Energy conservation has also gained prominence in energy educational programmes.

Fig. 8.1
A schematic of social systems literacy consists of 3 parts labeled energy systems literacy, project community literacy, and political literacy. Political literacy includes governance and competing energy visions. political economy, and intersectionality.

Social systems literacy (adapted from Cloke et al., 2017)

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Energy-educated individuals play a crucial role in achieving universal access to electricity through various means, including expertise in the renewable energy (RE) supply chain, involvement in policymaking and regulation, and active participation in the larger community. Becoming experts in the RE technologies supply chain is essential for community energy to contribute to universal access to electricity effectively. Assessing the capacity for energy learning helps determine if sufficient skills are available to support community energy projects, as the sector demands growing numbers of technicians. By equipping graduates with technical skills, energy education addresses the existing skill and knowledge gap in the RE supply chain, covering everything from the procurement of renewable energy technologies and accessories to their installation and maintenance in off-grid solutions.

Different types of community energy, such as micro-hydropower, solar photovoltaic, solar steam generators, biogas, and wind-power generator technologies, require specific skills and occupations associated with each source's supply chain. The RE value chain encompasses various stages, including equipment manufacturing and distribution, the development of renewable energy projects, construction and installation, operation and maintenance of renewable energy facilities, and cross-cutting activities contributing to multiple stages. Bioenergy has an additional step involving the growth and harvesting of biomass. Most of these stages require specialised skills. However, there is also a need for integrative skills across the different stages of supply. Energy graduates also fill gaps in policymaking, joining government institutions such as the Ministry of Water, Irrigation, and Energy (MoWIE), Ethiopian Electric Power (EEP), Ethiopian Electric Utility (EEU), and Ethiopian Energy Authority (EEA) in the case of Ethiopia.

Locally specific knowledge grounded on communities is also crucial for achieving the goal of universal access to electricity. The level of community knowledge on sustainable development significantly impacts the outcome. Within communities, individuals who understand energy are more likely to prioritise and engage in energy transitions towards renewables. Energy-educated individuals within the community can make informed decisions and actively participate in low-carbon energy transitions, mainly through off-grid solutions. Assessing energy learning capacity helps determine how the community supports community energy as an electrification method. Highly educated professionals can play a crucial role in mediating and integrating community knowledge into transition processes.

8.3 Key Priorities in the Energy Transition in Ethiopia

Over the past three years, Africa's population has consistently expanded at an average annual rate of 2.5%, surpassing all other regions and doubling the global average. Only four countries—the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Egypt, Ethiopia, and Nigeria—account for almost 40% of Africa’s population. Projections indicate that Africa's population is set to experience substantial growth, estimated to surpass 1.7 billion by 2030. The demand for electricity in Africa is projected to increase by approximately 75% from 680 TWh to 1,180 TWh by 2030. The surge in energy consumption in Africa primarily stems from the combined effects of economic and population expansions. The Africa Energy Outlook 2022 (IEA, 2022) indicates that the final consumption of modern fuels in Africa, about end-uses, experiences an average yearly growth of 5% between 2020 and 2030 in the sustainable Africa scenario (SAS). This marks a noteworthy increase compared to the 2% growth observed in the previous decade. Furthermore, the modern primary energy supply exhibits an average annual growth rate of 3% from 2020 to 2030. However, it is worth noting that the total primary energy supply, including the traditional utilisation of solid biomass, is projected to decline by 13% by 2030.

In Ethiopia, the energy transition is an urgent demand. Ethiopia has connected 33% of its population with on-grid and 11% with off-grid solutions—mostly mini-grids and solar PV systems—totalling 44%. In addition, 90% of the population still relies on biomass for cooking. The government's goal is to achieve universal electricity access nationwide by 2025, according to the National Electrification Program (NEP) titled “Light to All” (Gebremekel et al., 2019). The NEP focuses on implementing a cost-effective grid connection strategy, considering the geographic distribution of households to connect 65% of the population to the grid. The remaining 35% will receive an off-grid power supply.

The off-grid power supply is specifically designed to cater to remote settlements and villages where grid connectivity is not the most viable option. The intended technologies for this purpose primarily include standalone solar systems supplemented by mini/micro grid network connections, which are expected to be facilitated by the private sector. However, considering the current level of accessibility, it appears that achieving this ambitious goal within the stipulated timeframe may present significant challenges and may not be readily attainable.

Community energy (CE) projects aim to enable citizens to own or participate in generating sustainable energy. This can be achieved if citizens (private households, communities, etc.) collectively form a legal structure to finance and establish such projects (See Chapter 1). The electricity generated by such projects is then consumed locally or collectively sold to local power utilities, and profits can be split among participating citizens or re-invested in other projects. Citizens may establish, develop, and own projects by themselves (bottom-up) or involve other actors, such as energy utilities, to develop the projects in which the community can participate (top-down). This latter modality may have greater viability in Ethiopia, given the government's ferreous control over the energy sector. In any case, community energy is still a rarity in Ethiopia.

8.4 Policymakers’ Perspectives on a People-Centred Energy Transition

A survey was conducted to collect the opinions and views of various representatives of the key stakeholders in the energy sector with roles of policy development, regulation, and power supply in the whole process of creation and implementation of community energy in Ethiopia, seeking to understand the main priorities for the transition to sustainable energy in Ethiopia within the existing legislation, the multiple ways in which communities are involved in the delivery of sustainable energy, and the training and education needs arising in this context. The survey questions were electronically distributed to 26 representatives of stakeholders with different occupations, including high-level executives, policymakers, directors, senior experts, and lecturers.

The survey shows that for the central government, building technical capacity for the transition is a crucial priority, alongside providing finance and strengthening the regulatory framework. Higher education institutions also understand that they have a role to play in the transition through their regular education and by providing long-life training to local technicians who can operate and maintain the system alongside the formation of engineers.

The survey also shows that there is a significant awareness gap about the general idea and use of community energy or energy communities. Still, there is not a social perspective on the delivery of the energy transition. There is legislation (Proclamation No. 317/2003) that promotes cooperative engagement in rural electrification activities through loan-based finance, but it doesn’t clearly and specifically deal with “community energy”. The results have also shown that the concept of community energy is relatively new to the country and not entirely explored, even though MoWIE and GIZ made some initiatives with the development of micro-hydropower mini-grids through cooperative modality.

Respondents agreed that involving communities to address electricity access challenges could be feasible and effective. Regarding the feasibility of community energy projects, most respondents stated that such projects could be feasible in Ethiopia with the right policy, legislation, and incentives in place. However, several interviewees raised limitations in finance, technical skills, management, and governance. Several interviewees highlighted that solar-based generation, including solar mini-grids, is highly attractive to communities in Ethiopia. Still, they unanimously argued that technology selection is site and resource-dependent and that, rather than making prescriptions, technology decisions depend on detailed site studies.

As explained above, all interviewees anticipated challenges in developing and implementing community energy projects in Ethiopia. The main ones include limited awareness about community energy at all levels of decision-making, lack of clear and specific policies, regulatory guidelines and incentives, and financial constraints, especially lack of access to finance for communities. Interviewees also expressed doubts about the availability of technical skills to run community energy projects, disruptions in the supply chain, which may lack renewable components, an underdeveloped renewable industry, and limited public acceptance of projects of such dimensions.

Measures were proposed to overcome these challenges and create an enabling environment for community energy projects. Most interviewees argued that the development of community projects, and off-grid energy more generally, requires the government to take the initiative by creating awareness, setting clearly outlined policies, incentives, and regulations, establishing strong institutions that can provide all-rounded support and coordinate all stakeholders, setting legal frameworks and finance in place (especially arranging various finance accesses to overcome the financial problems of the community), encouraging local manufacturing of renewable systems and components, and starting pilot projects in selected villages. In doing so, the stakeholders’ perspectives align with existing energy policy and the assumption of government dominance.

Thus, other actors such as power utilities, finance institutions, NGOs, universities, and private companies are given a secondary role to work in collaboration and closely engage in public awareness creation, policy advice, and consultation, provide training, share the experiences of other countries which implemented similar projects, make research on detail implementation, provision of funds, support hard currency financing for import of system components and spare parts, enhance private sector involvement, engage local leaders and work closely with local governments and administrators. Central to the development of this ecosystem of skills is a thriving higher education servicing of the energy sector, including appropriate programmes to deliver technical, managerial, and social engagement skills, putting energy education at the heart of the transition to sustainable energy in Ethiopia.

Stakeholder perspectives are thus aligned and support the government’s vision for an energy transition, structuring agencies and programmes of action and, thus, framing off-grid energy (especially community energy) as an addition to the main electrification efforts. This is an engineering-led transition that may overlook the complex social impacts of such a process of change. One way to challenge this monolithic transition narrative is, precisely, through education and the cultivation of a wide range of energy literacy skills. This also entails recognising the wide range of skills needed for a transition beyond higher education, and the interdisciplinary nature of the challenge.

8.5 The Context of Higher Education for Energy in Ethiopia

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has argued that higher education shapes any country's socio-economic and political development (UNESCO, 1998). A pivotal moment in Ethiopian history was in December 1950 when Emperor Hailesellassie I University College (currently Addis Ababa University) first admitted 80 students from three secondary schools for higher education studies (Habte et al., 1963).

In 1994, the Federal Democratic Republic Government of Ethiopia (FDRE) ratified a Higher Education Proclamation (HEP) to lay down the foundation of a legal framework to enable higher education institutes to engage in research on problem-solving topics to utilise national resources and provide academic freedom to expand higher education in the nation (FDRE, 1994). More than 55 public and five private universities are operational, with 306 registered private higher education institutions. By the end of the 2019/2020 academic year, 212 undergraduate, 457 masters, and 220 PhD programmes had been imparted at all public universities (Tegegn, 2021).

Engineering education, both undergraduate and postgraduate, has been monopolised by public universities ever since higher education started. There are 10 Institutes of Technology (IOT) and universities with engineering colleges fully engaged in engineering education. Energy technology and energy-related courses are taught within those universities in undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. Engineering and technology programmes take a 32% share of enrolment from all undergraduate programmes throughout the universities (MOE, 2017). The higher education reform was implemented in 2009 on the admission of students from secondary school with a 70:30 quota scheme whereby 70% of undergraduate students study sciences and engineering/technology and 30% for social sciences, assuming hard science and engineering/technology graduates contribute to country development. This reform was again revised in 2019 to be replaced by a 55:45 placement for hard science and social science, respectively (Yirga, 2020). Although there is no dedicated energy-related BSc curriculum in public universities, there are different master’s programmes in Energy technology and sustainable energy engineering at a few universities nationwide.

For example, the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, formerly known as the Imperial College of Engineering, is the oldest institution teaching engineering education and is considered the leading Institute of Technology in Ethiopia. It was established in 1953 and initially offered two-year intermediate engineering programmes. Over the years, the college expanded its programmes, introduced four-year degree programmes in civil and industrial engineering, and later split the industrial engineering programme into electrical and mechanical engineering. In 1961, the college became a chartered member of Addis Ababa University. In April 2010, the Faculty of Technology was reorganised and given autonomy, leading to the establishment of the Addis Ababa Institute of Technology. The institute has a significant student population of over 5500 undergraduates and 4500 graduate (MSc and PhD) students. It also boasts a highly qualified staff of 400 academic members and around 600 administrative and support staff (MOE, 2018). A strong commitment to energy engineering has shaped the higher education landscape (Fig. 8.2).

Fig. 8.2
A time flow illustrates evolution of Addis Ababa University. The university was established in 1953, the civil engineering program was launched in 1958, the college became a chartered member in 1961, and the reorganization of the faculty of members happened in 2010.

Key events in the evolution of Addis Ababa University

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8.6 Engineering Higher Education in Ethiopia and the Energy Transition

The engineering sciences dominate thinking about energy in Ethiopia. How is engineering education conceived and delivered? To answer that, the Addis Ababa team developed methods to assess the presence, nature, and geographical distribution of energy programmes and courses offered by Ethiopian public universities. The following steps were taken:

  1. 1.

    Compilation of University Programs: A thorough compilation of Ethiopian public universities and their respective programmes was conducted using the official website of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (MoSHE), to identify universities offering energy programmes and courses.

  2. 2.

    Selection of Energy Programs: Energy programmes and courses at the BSc, MSc, and PhD levels were targeted for analysis. The analysis went systematically through the list of universities to identify energy-related programmes, courses, and modules.

  3. 3.

    Curriculum Review: A systematic curriculum review was conducted for each identified university. This involved a detailed examination of the course structure, descriptions, and learning outcomes of energy programmes and courses. The focus was on understanding the subject matter, level of specialisation, and overall content of the curriculum to gain insights into educational offerings in the energy domain.

  4. 4.

    Survey on Existing Educational Programs: To gather additional information about the energy programmes and curricula, a survey questionnaire was prepared using Google Forms. The questionnaire was sent to the School/Department Heads or Stream Chairs of the Institute of Technologies (IoTs) and Engineering Universities. The survey aimed to collect data on the existing educational curriculum of public universities, specifically focusing on the programmes of interest.

  5. 5.

    Data Analysis: The analysis focused on determining the percentage of universities offering energy programmes and courses at the BSc, MSc, and PhD levels. It provided insights into the prevalence of energy education across different academic levels and helped assess the overall landscape of energy learning in Ethiopian public universities.

  6. 6.

    Mapping Energy Learning: The geographical distribution of universities offering energy programmes and courses was visualised using Public Tableau. This mapping exercise facilitated a better understanding of the regional availability and accessibility of energy education. The results of the mapping exercise were shared and made publicly accessible through the CESET (Community Energy Solutions and Empowerment Technologies) website, enabling the dissemination of information and promoting awareness about the geographical distribution of energy education in Ethiopian public universities.

By combining the compilation of university programmes, curriculum review, survey responses, and mapping exercises, this comprehensive methodology provided a holistic assessment of the energy programmes and courses offered by Ethiopian public universities. It enabled insights into the presence, nature, and regional distribution of energy education, serving as a valuable resource for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders in the field.

The analysis shows significant capacity for the development of technical skills in Ethiopian public universities but a lack of other complementary skills to understand energy systems. The initial inventory shows that 45 public universities and ten institutes of technology (IoTs) deliver energy education in Ethiopia. The proportion of IoTs in the country is shown in Fig. 8.3, indicating that only 22% of the universities in Ethiopia have IoTs.Footnote 1

Fig. 8.3
An illustration of the titles of energy-related programs. The 3 programs are labeled B S C programs, M programs, and P H D programs. The P h d program includes electrical power engineering and sustainable energy engineering.

Titles of energy-related programmes offered at different IoTs in Ethiopia

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Across these institutions, energy education is offered in various ways. Some universities provide standalone MSc and/or PhD programmes in energy. In contrast, others incorporate energy courses into existing programmes such as Electrical Power Engineering, Electrical Power Systems Engineering, and Thermal Engineering. Figure 8.3 outlines the titles of programmes offered at different universities (Fig. 8.4).

Fig. 8.4
A horizontal bar graph of different courses offered versus the number of universities. B s c in Electrical Power Engineering program is offered at 35 universities.

The number of universities providing energy education

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Figure 8.4 shows the frequency of those programmes. There is no dedicated energy programme at the undergraduate level. However, two energy modules are being taught at different IoTs and engineering universities, primarily targeting electrical power engineering students. These courses are “Energy Conversion and Rural Electrification” and “Hydropower Engineering”.

The module “Energy Conversion and Rural Electrification” aims to introduce students to various primary energy resources and associated technologies for converting them into heat and electricity. The course covers renewable and non-renewable technologies, specifically focusing on hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass resources. It provides an overview of conventional and non-conventional power plants, insights into planning and designing small-scale and off-grid electrical power systems, and techniques for rural electrification planning and design. This course is the one that offers the most holistic approach to energy education.

The module “Hydropower Engineering” focuses on the working principles and major components of hydropower plants, covering everything from the catchment area to the turbine generator and tail race. The course aims to provide insights into hydropower engineering concepts, knowledge of planning, designing, and developing hydroelectric power plants, understanding the design of dams and spillways, and familiarisation with hydraulic turbine operation. These two courses are offered at the BSc level in 34 engineering universities, representing 76% of the public universities in Ethiopia (the remaining 24% do not offer engineering education).

At the MSc level, there are energy programmes available in four IoTs: Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT), Ethiopian Institute of Technology—Mekelle (EITM), Bahir Dar Institute of Technology (BDIT), and Jimma Institute of Technology (JiT). These programmes cover a wide range of energy-related courses, including quantitative methods for energy studies, renewable energy resources and technologies, energy economics and policy issues, bioenergy systems engineering, wind energy systems, fuel processing technologies, hydropower systems engineering, photovoltaic systems engineering, energy project planning and management, energy conservation and the environment, solar thermal systems engineering, and geothermal energy technology. While the technical disciplines are represented in all these courses, the social sciences are not.

In addition to the IoTs, other MSc programmes in different universities also offer energy-related courses. The specific courses vary depending on the programme and university, as illustrated in the energy learning capacity dashboard.Footnote 2

The results indicate that energy learning capacity at the MSc level is more comprehensive compared to the BSc level, but in both cases, there is a significant absence of social sciences skills in educational programmes and near-zero consideration of training of technicians and associated professions to work in the energy industry.

In conclusion, the investigation into energy technology programmes and courses in Ethiopian universities reveals that while energy education is not offered as a standalone programme at the undergraduate level, there are energy courses in engineering programmes across the country. The courses “Energy Conversion and Rural Electrification” and “Hydropower Engineering” provide students with knowledge of different energy resources and associated technologies, including conventional and non-conventional power plants, renewable energy sources, and planning and design of electrical power systems. However, the investigation reveals a dearth of social and policy skills embedded in the university programmes, limited engagement with innovation, and a lack of attention to the intermediary technical skills on which the transition depends. Energy education needs to foster a culture of creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship by drawing on a wide range of skills and providing access to energy education to an increasingly diverse workforce. Meanwhile, the existing programmes match the general expectations of policymakers and respond to the current needs of the energy system. The challenge now, however, is the perspective of an energy transition in Ethiopia, for which hydropower may not suffice. The analysis suggests that some essential skills and forms of knowledge crucial for the transition, emphasised in the energy literacy framework, are missing from current educational programmes. Universities and policymakers could make a difference in the transition by revising their offer in relation to expected, rather than present, needs.

8.7 The Perspectives of Energy Technology Graduates on the Energy Transition

In addition to the perspectives on education from policymakers and the existing educational programmes, an additional question was understanding the experiences of graduates who then join the energy sector. Who are these graduates, and what are they doing? This research took a purely quantitative approach, focusing on technology graduates from IoTs with some experience in the job market. The questionnaires, in a Google Spreadsheet, were distributed via email and were returned by 26 graduates, only four of them women. In-depth interviews were conducted either in person or on online platforms like Zoom and Google Meet with 16 graduates, four of whom were women. In-depth interviews followed a conversation about post-graduation experiences, ranging from 24 to 85 minutes.

In the past two and half decades, higher education admissions have increased in line with the expansion of new government universities across the country. The Ethiopian government's University Capacity Building Program (UCBP) was established to increase the infrastructure sector in higher education to generate a high number of engineering and hard science graduates to enhance the growth and transformation plan of the country (Alemayehu, 2021). The number of admitted regular undergraduate students enrolled in public universities has increased dramatically from 98,404 in 2014 to 388,186 students in 2018. Furthermore, the workforce, undergraduate regular students’ graduation rate boosted significantly from 7,006 in 2004 to 62,199 in 2018 (Mekonnen Yimer et al., 2022).

Ethiopia’s higher education gender mix has a significant variation among female and male undergraduate students across the country. In Ethiopia’s case, in the 2018/19 academic year, in both public and private undergraduate students, the ratio was 63/37 male to female (MOE, 2018). Global data from 74 countries between 1995 and 2018 showed that the male ratio in higher education enrolment increased from 0.95 to 1.14 on average, whereas sub-Saharan African countries have among the lowest global female-to-male enrolment ratios, about 0.6 (UNESCO, 2021). In Ethiopia, female enrolment in public and private universities in hard science and engineering is among the lowest with a 0.59 value of female-to-male ratio (MOE, 2018).

The background of the study group was evaluated in terms of gender, B.Sc. qualification, year of B.Sc. graduation, and years of experience based on the information collected from the responses to the questionnaire (Fig. 8.5). Energy-related postgraduate programme admission requires a first-degree in Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, and other hard sciences based on the admission criteria of the respective university. In our survey, most students are mechanical engineering graduates (Fig. 8.5). This is a relatively small sample, but it also suggests that women are underrepresented in the sector (Fig. 8.5).

Fig. 8.5
A bar graph and a pie chart. Left. A bar graph shows the number of respondents in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and others. The highest number of respondents are for mechanical engineering. Right. A pie chart of gender composition. Female, 18 percent, and male, 82 percent.

Background and gender of participants in the questionnaire

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Sixty-two per cent of respondents are from different regional university staff members who came with scholarships from the government to study renewable energy-related programmes to enhance their respective departments, while the other 38% of respondents are from the public and private sectors engaged in the engineering field.

Among the respondents, 71% of graduates from energy-related master’s programmes are currently employed in universities as lecturers. The others are working in positions that are not relevant to their specialisation, and only 4% of them are working in the fields directly related to their study. Individuals in this sample have joined the second-degree specialisation in energy-related programmes from different industry areas, which include private consultants, researchers, and higher institution instructors. The length of work experience after first-degree graduation varied from 1–5 years, 6–10 years, and greater than 10 years, accounting for 42.9%, 35.7%, and 21.4%, respectively.

Among the respondents, 53.6% did not ever have a chance to meet the rural population who need renewable energy technologies, whereas 46.4% had a chance to visit the rural population in need. They have pointed out that lack of awareness, lack of finance, lack of infrastructure, and substandard materials in the market are taking the lion's share for having a low community-based energy system in the rural population. From the data collected, postgraduate energy-related education is not easily available in all IoTs and universities across the country. Energy graduates will play a vital role in alleviating the rural population's energy issues if the current education landscape is changed to accommodate more energy-related postgraduate programmes introduced in the country.

According to the interviews, short-term training in the engineering sector has a significant impact on the performance of graduates in their specific fields. Training might be organised in person or online based on the contents of the short-term training. Among the respondents, only 39% of respondents experienced short-term training (online or in person). Topics focus on solar energy development, small-scale hydropower development, wind energy, and biomass. Renewable energy simulation and software training are among the training taken by a few respondents.

The master’s programme is less prestigious than master-level programmes in other engineering programmes. About 92% of respondents consider the majority of master’s degree level courses to be delivered as business as usual, in which the professors lecture using a projector supported by corresponding examples and written assignments. Oral presentation and research-based assignments are used very rarely in all IoTs. According to the respondents, laboratory-supported courses are not delivered intensively in all IoTs where the programme is available. A few courses like bioenergy engineering, thermal engineering, and wind energy have laboratory exercise demonstrations. The IoTs do not have enough laboratory facilities dedicated to postgraduate students. Courses like PV engineering, wind engineering, solar thermal engineering, biofuel, and hydropower engineering are among the major courses proposed by responders to have dedicated laboratory exercises in parallel with the courses. They have observed that the courses are not practice-oriented and are not supported by rigorous simulation software. They have recommended that professors should involve graduate students in scientific research- projects with simulation software. Respondents argue that undergraduate mechanical and electrical engineering courses should be revised to provide wider coverage of renewable energy courses. Mechanical graduates proposed basic electrical engineering courses, and renewable energy-based courses that are more relevant to support energy-related postgraduate courses. For electrical engineering graduates, courses in mechanical engineering like heat transfer, thermal engineering, and electrodynamics can support postgraduate courses. In sum, there is a clear lack of practice-oriented training and short-term courses to develop the specialist skills that would be needed in a transition to sustainable energy.

Interviewees explain that a major issue with all IoTs is an acute shortage of professors who have specialised in renewable and energy-related topics to provide lectures. All IoTs share a staff member as a guest professor. The lowest academic rank teaching postgraduate courses is a lecturer with a master’s degree in most IoTs. Twenty-two per cent of respondents were taught by an assistant professor with a master’s degree as the lowest academic rank. In comparison, 48.1% were taught by lecturers with a master’s degree as the lowest academic rank, and 29.6% were taught by an assistant professor with a PhD degree as the lowest academic rank. This figure shows that the master’s programme in energy-related courses is open on IoT without enough academic staff with PhD degrees. This means that lecturers may face strenuous challenges in delivering these programmes in the time allocated, with further ramifications for the well-being of lecturers and for students’ learning outcomes.

8.8 Conclusion

Delivering transitions to sustainable energy in African countries will require substantial skills, both technical and social, to manage supply chains, change regulations, and engage communities on one of the major challenges of this generation. Development of energy literacy requires engaging a wide range of audiences in energy education, from the regulators in charge of energy frameworks and the investors to the people who will benefit from the supply of energy. As community energy becomes a workable alternative to deliver energy transitions in African countries, the need to understand communities and their role in delivering energy projects becomes more urgent. Energy education needs to engage with such challenges that enable an innovative and just vision of the future of energy in the continent.

This is particularly salient in Ethiopia, where the recent civil war has put into question many of the recent gains made in terms of energy access across the country. The war has destroyed not only infrastructure but also capacities and skills. It has also affected teaching programmes all across universities. Higher education can help build a foundation to deliver a renewable energy future and bring renewed prosperity across the country.

This research, mostly conducted before the war started (which would have exacerbated the challenges), shows that the current landscape of energy education in Ethiopia needs to evolve to provide workable responses to the energy transition. First, there is a challenge in the perceptions of a transition to sustainable energy, which shapes existing policies, cultures, and actions. Key stakeholders paint a technologically led future with big renewable infrastructures, mainly hydro, without recognising the diversity of actions that will enable engaging the population in a broader cultural change. Second, there is a challenge in the structure of energy-related programmes provided at public universities, especially IoTs. They have an exclusive technical focus with limited engagement with issues of rural development and only in some undergraduate programmes. System-level questions about the politics and governance of energy resources and infrastructures, as well as sociological and socio-psychological questions related to the processes of technological and behavioural change during the transition, should be considered. The just transition is not something studied in these programmes. When examining this against the background of the energy literacy framework, there are substantial gaps in the energy studies curriculums in public universities in Ethiopia. There needs to be a holistic understanding of a wider range of issues affecting the transition, including political debates, policymaking and implementation, community engagement, and behaviour change. Moreover, there appears to be only limited interest in training technicians and lifelong learning, which may be key to ensuring continuous innovation within the energy sector. Third, the experiences of graduates show that there is a need to develop more engaged education programmes actively engaged with practice. While budgetary issues may pester public universities, a practice-oriented education around student-led projects and laboratories may be cost-effective and reduce the need for contact time with already stressed lecturers.

An important finding of this research is that the already significant gender gap in higher education in Ethiopia is likely to be even higher in the energy sector. This means that higher education is not supporting the closing of the gender gap that hinders the energy transition. Taking active measures to attract women to energy education through information and awareness campaigns, for example, could be a means to defy the challenges to develop a workforce capable of leading and shaping the transition to renewable energy in Ethiopia.

Investing in energy skills should be a priority for the government and international donors in the post-war period, putting at the centre, the need for diverse skills and diverse people shaping the future of energy in Ethiopia and Africa.