Abstract
I explore the policy underpinning the centrality of criticality in maintained (state-funded) schools in England. I am concerned to know whether criticality is a clear and coherent concept. I argue that criticality is a major educational aim. I observe that even though criticality is wider than critical thinking, much of the policy language is confined to the use of skills or abilities. I claim that the policy governing the teaching of criticality in England does not speak to coherence. Finally, I argue that this policy tacitly assumes the existence of critical thinking skills that are generic in nature and transferable across different subject domains. This, I contend, should be challenged. I also praise teaching across the curricula, from the formal, natural and social sciences to the arts and humanities, to develop a depth of criticality in students.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Following convention, titles for Wittgenstein’s works are abbreviated (CV = Culture and Value and PI = Philosophical Investigations), with section (§) or page number, and with the full citation and initials given in the References.
- 2.
- 3.
Nor should policymakers simply assume that general thinking skills, as distinct from domain specific skills in technical subjects, are the most important skills to meet the educational needs of students.
- 4.
It remains an open question whether generic thinking skills can be learnt independently of knowledge domains and, further, what would count as satisfactory evidence in supporting such claims.
- 5.
- 6.
A question that could also be pursued, but is beyond the scope of my present inquiries, is to what extent criticality can be viewed as a social good (or common good or public good). I make some brief observations. It seems to me that properly nurtured within educational settings, criticality equips critical beings with an armoury of commensurate skills, dispositions and intellectual virtues that are practised by them as reflective, creative and purposeful citizens in public life. Indeed I would suggest that absent criticality, a human being cannot, in Rawlsian terms, obtain the primary goods necessary for pursuing a good life (or a ‘rational long-term plan of life’) (Rawls 1972: 62 and 92–93) and would be compelled to live an ‘unexamined life’, as denounced by Socrates in the Apology, 38a, (Plato 1997: 33). There are, of course, other standpoints from which this question may be approached. In any case, criticality serves to benefit both individuals and society. It defends subjectivity by serving to protect the relations an individual has with her environment and recognise her lived experiences and embodiment of feelings, emotions and desires all of which empower her to think and act. Also, criticality adjusts her lens to see others and to listen to their viewpoints and perspectives. The critical being lives in a shared world where she negotiates and cooperates with others. I may even draw a parallel between viewing criticality as a social good and Jan McArthur’s idea of a moral university contributing to the social good by helping all citizens actualise good and fulfilling lives (McArthur 2019: 132–133). She uses the term ‘social good’ to transcend the public/private goods dichotomy and envisions the good life as not merely the sum of individual actions, but as something mediated by Axel Honneth’s notion of cooperative self-actualisation. The interrelations and interdependence between one’s self and others, in this sense, affords an important layer of meaning to the life of the critical being. She is unique. Yes, but she is also a member of, and a meaningful participant in, a critical citizenry.
- 7.
They include communication and language, physical development, personal social and emotional development, literacy, mathematics, understanding the world and expressive arts and design (Id. 8–10). The individual needs and interests and developmental stages of each child are to be monitored (Id. 15) and commensurate early learning goals (Id. 11–15) and assessment strategies (Id. 18–20) are set to ensure readiness for entry into year 1 in primary school.
- 8.
The former EYFS framework required the report writer to include a short commentary on each child’s skills and abilities concerning the three key characteristics of effective learning (DfE 2017: 14). The framework was supplemented by EYFS profile exemplification materials which deal specifically with the 17 early year goals (STA 2014).
- 9.
- 10.
The 2018 Handbook also included example lines of enquiry for each of the three characteristics of effective learning (STA 2017: 57–59).
- 11.
In terms of assessing each child’s performance in relation to the said characteristics of effective learning, practitioners were encouraged to use the following possible lines of enquiry; namely:
“Creating and thinking critically
‘Having their own ideas’ covers the critical area of creativity―generating new ideas and approaches in all areas of endeavour. Being inventive allows children to find new problems as they seek challenge, and to explore ways of solving these.
‘Using what they already know to learn new things’ refers to the way children use narrative and scientific modes of thought to:
• develop and link concepts
• find meaning in sequence, cause and effect
• find meaning in the intentions of others
‘Choosing ways to do things and finding new ways’ involves children in:
• approaching goal-directed activity in organised ways
• making choices and decisions about how to approach tasks
• planning and monitoring what to do and being able to change strategies” (STA 2017: 25).
- 12.
This distinction is relevant to the ongoing debate, which we introduce in Chapter 13, concerning the dominance of the rationalistic thematic and the Cartesian method in education and the related complaint of the sciences unduly encroaching into the arts and the humanities.
- 13.
QCA (1999: 20–22, 27, 29, 39, 43, 53, 76–77, 96, 116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 129, 132, 136, 139).
- 14.
- 15.
- 16.
- 17.
Marie-France Daniel and Gabriela Fiema’s analysis of the teaching of P4C by designated research teams in Canada, France, Mexico and Australia indicates that ‘pedagogical practices focused on critical dialogue among peers, such as P4C, represent a significant tool for stimulating [critical] thinking in pupils’ (Daniel and Fiema 2017: 58).
- 18.
Matthew Lipman writes: ‘The community of inquiry wants to build a system of thought. It begins with a provisional scaffolding made up of the relevant beliefs that are already held, the aims of the project, and the values that are to be upheld. The procedure is dialectical: Specific judgments are molded to accepted generalizations, and generalizations are molded to specific judgments. Considerations of value are weighed against antecedent judgments of fact. The goal is a system of thought in reflective equilibrium’ (Lipman 2003: 103).
- 19.
Even from a young age it is important that pupils grasp why, for example, empirical hypotheses are not relevant to resolving moral questions. The boundaries and limits, and the methods, of each discipline vary considerably.
- 20.
DfE (2014: 15, 18, 42–43, 49, 69, 80–83, 88, 94, 101).
- 21.
QCA (2004: 11, 21–23, 43, 47, 56, 67, 70, 112, 138, 143, 173, 182, 195, 201, 204–205, 207).
- 22.
QCA (2004: 22–23).
- 23.
DfES (2005a: 16–20, 35–40, 43–46, 49–53, 56–61, 64–70, 73–79, 82–88, 90–96, 99–104).
- 24.
DfES (2005b).
- 25.
- 26.
By way of clarification concerning the sciences, the formal sciences encompass formal systems including logic, algebra, geometry, artificial intelligence and computer science. Deductive, a priori reasoning rather than empirical methodology is key. The natural sciences involve the biological, chemical, physical, geological and cosmological study of natural phenomena. Empirical methodology is employed. There is a cross-over with applied sciences such as engineering and medicine, for example, where scientific methods and scientific forms of knowledge are used to attain practical goals. The social sciences include areas as diverse as law, politics, sociology, anthropology, economics, psychology, history and archaeology.
- 27.
DfES (2005a: 121–126).
References
Andrews, Richard. (2015) Critical Thinking and/or Argumentation in Higher Education. In Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (49‒62). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ashwin, Paul. (2020) Transforming University Education: A Manifesto. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Barnett, Ronald. (1997) Higher Education: A Critical Business. Buckingham: Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press.
BIS. (2016) Success as a Knowledge Economy: Teaching Excellence, Social Mobility and Student Choice. London: Department for Business Innovation & Skills. https://www.rsc.org/globalassets/04-campaigning-outreach/policy/education-policy/high-quality-teaching/bis-white-paper.pdf
Burbules, Nicholas C. (1998) ‘Modes of Criticality as Modes of Teaching’, Philosophy of Education Archive, 485‒488. https://ojs.education.illinois.edu/index.php/pes/article/viewfile/2153/848
Cosgrove, Rush. (2011) ‘Critical Thinking in the Oxford Tutorial: A Call for an Explicit and Systematic Approach’, Higher Education Research & Development, 30(3): 343‒356.https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.487259
Daniel, Marie-France and Gabriela Fiema. (2017) ‘Dialogical Critical Thinking in Children’, Knowledge Cultures, 5(4): 42‒65. https://doi.org/10.22381/KC5420174
Davies, Martin and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) (2015) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dewey, John. (1997) How We Think. Mineola: Dover Publications Inc.
Dewey, John. (2016) Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. 100th Anniversary Edition. Edited by Todd Kettler. Promethean Press. www.promethean-press.com
DfE. (2013) The National Curriculum in England: Key Stages 1 and 2 Framework Document. London: Department for Education. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/425601/PRIMARY_national_curriculum.pdf
DfE. (2014) The National Curriculum in England: Key Stages 3 and 4 Framework Document. London: Department for Education. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/840002/Secondary_national_curriculum_corrected_PDF.pdf
DfE. (2017) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage: Setting the Standards for Learning, Development and Care for Children from Birth to Five. London: Department for Education. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/596629/EYFS_STATUTORY_FRAMEWORK_2017.pdf
DfE. (2021) Statutory Framework for the Early Years Foundation Stage: Setting the Standards for Learning, Development and Care for Children from Birth to Five. London: Department for Education. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/974907/EYFS_framework_-_March_2021.pdf
DfE. (2022) Early Years Foundation Stage Profile: 2023 Handbook. London: Department for Education. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1109972/Early_Years_Foundation_Stage_profile_2023_handbook.pdf
DfES. (2005a) Leading in Learning: Developing Thinking Skills at Key Stage 3. Handbook for School Leaders. London: Department for Education and Skills. https://www.lancsngfl.ac.uk/secondary/math/download/file/PDF/Handbookforteachers.pdf
DfES. (2005b) Leading in Learning: Developing Thinking Skills at Key Stage 3. Guide for School Leaders. London: Department for Education and Skills. https://content.ncetm.org.uk/itt/sec/KeelePGCEMaths2006/SecondaryNationalStrategy/Leading%20in%20Learning/ws_lil_ts003605slead.pdf
DfES. (2006a) Leading in Learning: Developing Thinking Skills in Secondary Schools. Supplement to Key Stage 3 Guide for School Leaders. London: Department for Education and Skills. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/9833/7/f26d978d63bd9b13b2239b37668026a3_Redacted.pdf
DfES. (2006b) Leading in Learning: Developing Thinking Skills in Secondary Schools. Key Stage 4 Handbook for Teachers. London: Department for Education and Skills. https://www.lancsngfl.ac.uk/secondary/math/download/file/PDF/Leading%20in%20Learning%20-%20Developing%20Thinking%20Skills%20at%20KS4.pdf
Ellerton, Peter. (2015) Metacognition and Critical Thinking: Some Pedagogical Imperatives. In Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (409‒426). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ennis, Robert H. (2015) Critical Thinking: A Streamlined Conception. In Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (31‒47). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Ennis, Robert H. (2018) ‘Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum: A Vision’, Topoi, 37: 165‒184.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-016-9401-4
Glevey, Kwame E. (2008) ‘Thinking Skills in England’s National Curriculum’, Improving Schools, 11(2): 115‒125.https://doi.org/10.1177/1365480208091104
Green, Paul. (2015) Teaching Critical Thinking for Lifelong Learning. In Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (107‒121). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Hare, William. (1999) Critical Thinking as an Aim of Education. In Roger Marples. (ed.), The Aims of Education (97‒108). London: Routledge.
Hayward, Geoff and Rosa M. Fernandez. (2004) ‘From Core Skills to Key Skills: Fast Forward or Back to the Future?’, Oxford Review of Education, 30(1): 117‒145.https://doi.org/10.1080/0305498042000190087
Higham, Rupert. (2018) ‘“To Be Is To Respond”: Realising a Dialogic Ontology For Deweyan Pragmatism’, Journal of Philosophy of Education, 52(2): 245‒358.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12290
Jones, Anna. (2015) A Disciplined Approach to Critical Thinking. In Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (169‒182). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kotzee, Ben. (2018) ‘Dewey as Virtue Epistemologist: Open-Mindedness and the Training of Thought in Democracy and Education’, Journal of Philosophy of Education, 52(2): 359‒373.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12291
Larsson, Kristoffer. (2021) ‘On the Role of Knowledge in Critical Thinking—Using Student Essay Responses to Bring Empirical Fuel to the Debate Between “Generalists” and “Specifists”’, Journal of Philosophy of Education, 55(2): 314‒322.https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12545
Lau, Joe Y. F. (2015) Metacognitive Education: Going Beyond Critical Thinking. In Martin Davies and Ronald Barnett. (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education (373‒389). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Leicester, Mal and Denise Taylor. (2010) Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum: Developing Critical Thinking Skills, Literacy and Philosophy in the Primary Classroom. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Lipman, Matthew. (2003) Thinking in Education. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lipman, Matthew, Ann Margaret Sharp and Frederick S. Oscanyan. (1977) Philosophy in the Classroom. Upper Montclair, New Jersey: Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College.
McArthur, Jan. (2019) ‘Towards a Moral University: Horkheimer’s Commitment to the “Vicissitudes of Human Fate”’, Philosophy and Theory in Higher Education, 3(1): 131‒151. https://eprints.lancs.ac.uk/id/eprint/143815
McPeck, John E. (1981) Critical Thinking and Education. Oxford: Martin Robertson & Company Ltd.
Monk, Ray. (1991) Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius. London: Vintage.
Murris, Karin. (2013) ‘Reading the World, Reading the Word: Why Not Now, Bernard is Not a Case of Suicide, but Self-killing’, Perspectives in Education, 31(4): 85‒99. https://journals.ufs.ac.za/index.php/pie/article/view/1832
Paul, Richard W. (1990) Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World. Rohnert Park: Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique, Sonoma State University.
Peterson, Robert E. (2017) Teaching How to Read the World and Change It: Critical Pedagogy in the Intermediate Grades. In Antonia Darder, Rodolfo D. Torres and Marta P. Baltodano. (eds.), The Critical Pedagogy Reader. Third Edition (382‒399). Abingdon: Routledge.
Plato. Complete Works. (1997) Edited by John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
QCA. (1999) The National Curriculum: Handbook for primary teachers in England. Jointly published by the Department for Education and Employment and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/18150/7/QCA-99-457_Redacted.pdf
QCA. (2004) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Secondary Teachers in England. Jointly published by the Department for Education and Skills and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. https://www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/pdfs/2004-nc-secondary-handbook.pdf
QCA. (2011) A Framework for Personal, Learning and Thinking Skills. London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110215111658/http://curriculum.qcda.gov.uk/key-stages-3-and-4/skills/personal-learning-and-thinking-skills/index.aspx
Raiskums, Bernadine W. (2008) An Analysis of the Concept Criticality in Adult Education (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Capella University, Minneapolis, United States. https://www.proquest.com/openview/9f2895936d908f7aedee3dc377074996/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750
Rawls, John. (1972) A Theory of Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Siegel, Harvey. (1988) Educating Reason: Rationality, Critical Thinking, and Education. London: Routledge.
Siegel, Harvey. (1989) ‘Epistemology, Critical Thinking, and Critical Thinking Pedagogy’, Argumentation, 3(2): 127‒140.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00128144
STA. (2014) Early Years Foundation Stage Profile: Exemplification Materials. Coventry: Standards and Testing Agency. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/eyfs-profile-exemplication-materials
STA. (2017) Early Years Foundation Stage Profile: 2018 Handbook. Coventry: Standards and Testing Agency. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/669079/Early_years_foundation_stage_profile_2018_handbook.pdf
Wellington, Jerry. (1987) Skills for the Future? Vocational Education and New Technology. In Maurice Holt. (ed.) Skills and Vocationalism: The Easy Answer (21‒42). Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. (1980) Culture and Value. Edited by G. H. von Wright and Heikki Nyman. Translated by Peter Winch. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. [cited as CV]
Wittgenstein, Ludwig. (2001) Philosophical Investigations. Translated by G. E. M. Anscombe. Third Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. [cited as PI]
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Deegan, M.J. (2024). Maintained Schools in England. In: Reflections on Criticality in Educational Philosophy. Palgrave Studies in Educational Philosophy and Theory. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-57330-9_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-57330-9_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-57329-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-57330-9
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)