Abstract
In this chapter, the authors will focus on current and, especially, future technological transformations in medicine during the final phase of the Cybernetic Revolution. Medicine is and will be a branch around which different technologies (AI, robots, 3d-printing, bio, nano and cognitive technologies) combine. The present chapter provides more examples of such interrelationships denoted by the authors as MANBRIC-complex. Grinin et al. argue that there is a wide range of prospects for the development of medicine in the twenty-first century. The general vector of breakthroughs makes it possible to expand our ability to modify the human body and genome. These changes will probably include the following: the expansion of the opportunities to perform minimally invasive operations instead of the current surgical ones; the cultivation of specific biological materials, body parts and other elements for the regeneration and rehabilitation of an organism, as well as artificial analogues of biological materials (tissues, bodies, receptors, etc.) and so on. Along with the achievements that have been and will be made in medicine, the authors will also identify a number of serious problems and challenges, such as the increasing medicalization of humans and the current stagnation in the pharmaceutical industry.
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Notes
- 1.
The recent archaeological discovery made in a cave in Borneo, Indonesia, completely changes our understanding of the Stone Age: the scientists found an amputee who lived 31,000 years ago. Meanwhile, just two hundred years ago, many people who had limbs amputated died either from blood loss and shock, or from infection (Prillaman 2022).
- 2.
When preparing the paragraph on surgery, we used data from Petrov 2014.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
The opioid overdose deaths in the USA increased to 75,673 in the 12-months ending in April 2021, from 56,064 the year before (NCHS, 2021). The opioid overdose deaths continue to rise rapidly.
- 6.
It is obvious that the mass-market drugs have a significant disadvantage: their effectiveness decreases and they help only some patients, whose number can range between 30 to 50 percent (Martyushev-Poklad 2015). Medication errors also cause serious side effects. For example, according to some data (probably, overestimated), the prescription errors caused more than 100,000 deaths per year in the late 1990s and early 2000s (Null et al., 2004: Table 1). Medical errors are quite costly to society. For example, medical billing errors cost Americans $210 billion annually. Approximately 12 million Americans are misdiagnosed every year. And it is estimated that 7,000 to 9,000 patients die every year from medication errors (Medical Error Statistics 2022).
- 7.
As we discussed in Chap. 7, the characteristics of a healthy life are also expressed in the Healthy Life Expectancy (HALE) index, which (according to the WHO methodology) takes into account years of life lost due to premature mortality and years lived with poor state of health (Disability Adjusted Life Years, DALY) (see Murray et al., 2002, 2012; Murray & Lopez, 2013; Wang et al., 2012; Sindyashkina, 2022).
- 8.
This will be discussed further in Chap. 10; in particular, we will speak about robots that can replace junior medical staff in caring for the sick, old and infirm.
- 9.
It is a large machine which is equipped with flexible ‘hands’—manipulators with a set of surgical tools. A very small incision is made in the patient; therefore the operations are less painful and patients need a shorter period for recovery. Robots can use all the latest tele-video systems which allow doctors to see the operation clearly, magnified and in color. The doctor watches the monitor and controls the robot, sitting in the other part of the surgery (in the future he could also be in any other city or even country), the assistant watches the robot and the patient. For the purpose of watching the surgery process in full detail, the HD 3D screens are installed. Robot-assisted surgeries are becoming very popular, for example, the medical companies in the USA use the billboards to attract more clients to these painless fast procedures (Pinkerton 2013).
- 10.
- 11.
Russian scientists are developing a new method for treating liver cirrhosis. It involves placing a cellular scaffold made of a special porous material—air gel—in place of the removed diseased part of the organ. It will trigger cell regeneration and help the body repair damaged tissue (Gritsenko & Maleva, 2023).
- 12.
- 13.
Once a sufficient number of cells have been grown, they are implanted in the developed materials, which are based on polysaccharides and special substrates which control their growth. The growth conditions of the cells in these structures are very similar to their natural environment.
- 14.
It proves once again the point which was made 200 years ago by the founder of vaccines, Edward Jenner, ‘The deviation of man from the state in which he was originally placed by nature seems to have proved to him a prolific source of diseases.’.
- 15.
It is difficult to say how ‘perfect’ they will be and what kind of problems will as a result of these technologies. For example, the ability to predict a baby’s gender has resulted in gender imbalance in China. As a result, there is a disproportionate number of boys.
- 16.
On the achievement of superhuman abilities through genetic engineering technologies, see also the conclusion to this chapter.
- 17.
In addition to these anti-aging technologies, we also highlight: 1) drugs (geroprotectors, “drugs for old age”); 2) technologies of regeneration, substitution/cyborgization (organ replacement, cultivation of organs and tissues; transplantation of intestinal biota); 3) genetic engineering technologies and a number of others. In Chap. 11, we describe in detail these and other emerging technologies for combating aging, rejuvenating the body, and their prospects.
- 18.
- 19.
One of today’s optogenetic technologies provides a good example and a general idea of how this can work. The essence of the technology is that a fragment of DNA which encodes specific membrane proteins is integrated into the genome. These light-activated proteins (from the light source implanted in the brain tissue or through transosseous luminescence) can create an ion flow inside the cell and thus lead to its activation (Saigitov, 2015).
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This chapter has been prepared with support by the Russian Science Foundation (Project No. 23-11-00160).
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Grinin, L., Grinin, A., Korotayev, A. (2024). Medicine and the Cybernetic Revolution: On the Way to Control Over the Human Body. In: Cybernetic Revolution and Global Aging. World-Systems Evolution and Global Futures. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-56764-3_8
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