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From Western to Islamic World: The Transformation of Nicosia’s Cultural Identity

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Street Naming and the Politics of Greek-Cypriot Identity

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Abstract

This chapter addresses the politics of street-naming in the early years of British rule with reference to the late Ottoman period, examining Nicosia’s transformation following the Ottoman conquest in 1570 and British acquisition of Cyprus in 1878. Focusing on the administrative and constitutional amendments attempted during this period, it discusses the British attempt to restructure urban spaces in alignment with their vision of mutual toleration among different religions, while simultaneously asserting British superiority. The mapping of the city and first British attempt at official street-naming in Nicosia is additionally described in some detail. This examination enabled the creation of a table of names for the various Nicosia quarters, bastions, and bazaars, after which the main commercial streets of the capital were named.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    For the symbolic places and identity see Azaryahu and Kellerman [83].

  2. 2.

    Administrative division [84].

  3. 3.

    Governor-General (Ottoman: beylerbeyi): a governor of a province [85] The Bey of the beys who ruled the province (eyelet) [9].

  4. 4.

    A Venetian palace: See C. Enlard at Excerpta Cypria [2].

  5. 5.

    Of the 32 foundations mentioned in the judicial registers up until 1611 at least 16 had military origins” [1].

  6. 6.

    Jennings writes that urban quarters were often designating beneficiaries of pious donations [1].

  7. 7.

    See also Jeffery’s comments concerning the names of Nicosia quarters, which are said to be derived from the 12 generals in command during the conquest of Cyprus in 1571.

  8. 8.

    Shaw (1975) reports that a Cadastral Department (Tahrir-I Emlak Idaresi) was established within the Ministry of the Treasury in November 1860 to conduct a new survey of property and people within the empire in the framework of the Tanzimat reforms. The first census of population and lands in Cyprus took place in 1831 under Mahmud II’s reforms for the Europeanization and modernization of the Ottoman Empire. According to Karpat [86], another census (tahrir) of the Muslim population in Cyprus was carried out in 1861, followed in 1862 by a census of the non-Muslim population to aid reform of the tax system. The same practice was followed by the British administration in 1881 for tax planning purposes.

  9. 9.

    The sacred law.

  10. 10.

    The Vilayet law, which formed part of the Tanzimat reforms, regulated the provincial administration and facilitated the provision of greater amounts of local government.

  11. 11.

    According to the code each town was to have a municipal council consisting of between six and 12 members, depending on the population. The mayor was appointed by the government. Democratic municipal institutions were introduced after the revolution of 1908 [13].

  12. 12.

    The municipal council was responsible for the hygiene and cleanliness of Nicosia, as well as town-planning.

  13. 13.

    According to the Vilayet Law of 1871 a mahalle—a civilian settlement—was a cluster of at least 50 houses [86].

  14. 14.

    [15, 88] Muhbir was a separate term used for the representative of the Christian community to the Ottoman administration. After the passing of Vilayet Law (Law of the provinces) in 1864 the term ‘Muhtar’ prevailed and was shared by all the religious groups of the Empire.

  15. 15.

    Kazas were sub-divisions of Sanjaks. The Kazas were sub-divided to nahiles under a Mudir, which included villages under a Mukhtar [88] The administrative division of Cyprus followed the reforms of the Ottoman empire. According to the Ottoman Documents during 1840–1878 Cyprus was a sanjak (liwa) with the administrative subdivisions that included the kazas and the nahiles Ιωάννης Θεοχαρίδης, Οθωμανικά Έγγραφα (Vol. 5) 1840–1912 (Λευκωσία: Κέντρο Μελετών Ιεράς Μονής Κύκκου, 1999) ; [16].

  16. 16.

    The Mahalles of Nicosia were in fact 24 (see Table 4.1).

  17. 17.

    Non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire.

  18. 18.

    Ayia Sophia is a catholic cathedral converted into a mosque upon the arrival of the Ottomans in Cyprus in 1570. Keshishian [89] writes that on August 13, 1954 the Mufti of Cyprus officially renamed the mosque “Selimiye Mosque”, in honour of the Ottoman sultan Selim II (1566–1574), who conquered Cyprus.

  19. 19.

    The state of the city upon British arrival was described as atrocious. Water supply, cleaning, and sanitation were defective.

  20. 20.

    According to Dixon “One feature of the city separates Nicosia from the Syrian capital; the want of any street that even by the courtesy of Orientals, could be called “The Straight” [65].

  21. 21.

    The electors were persons contributing towards municipal expenses instead of as had been before persons paying Government taxes on property. The President (formerly selected by the executive authorities from the councillors elected by the inhabitants) is to be selected for that post by the councillors themselves.

    In 1882 the population of Nicosia was 11,513 of which 5397 were Muslims and 5658 Orthodox (Census taken in Cyprus on the 4th of April 1881 and published for general information) Cyprus Gazette, 3 March 1882, no, 82 (pp. 150–152).

  22. 22.

    The right to vote and to stand as a candidate at the municipal elections was granted to all British citizens as well as to foreigners who had been living in Cyprus for five years as well as to the local Muslim citizens. In order to have the right to vote and to stand as a candidate one needed to be over 21 years old and pay tax for owned property.

  23. 23.

    [91]; Until January 1884 the valuation list or voters’ list—those who had paid their municipal taxes to the end of 1884—included only 57 names. In the report of Inspector W.R. Collyer to the High Commissioner it is reported that there were two reasons for the failure of the procedure: (a) Inability on behalf of the Council members to understand the provisions of the Ordinance as well as the difficulty of translating an English law in Greek and Turkish (b) the inability on behalf of people accustomed to the Turkish System of Government to understand any consequences that could arise from irregularities on the part of a public body (c) “a rooted antipathy to the system of raising Municipal funds by means of rates on property payable by the inhabitants of the town” (d) the inability of the President and Members of the Municipal Council to enforce tax due to their concerns about the public reaction among all social ranks that it would cause [90].

  24. 24.

    (baş / bash in Turkish means chief/head). Pasch Mahalle included the Royatikon—the house of one of the Frankish Rulers [52].

  25. 25.

    The cadastral plans of 1915 provide important insight on the fountains of Nicosia.

  26. 26.

    Cheshme: Fountain in Turkish (See 1915 Nicosia cadastral plans).

  27. 27.

    Blacks’Fountain.

  28. 28.

    Walnuts’ Fountain. The minutes of the Nicosia municipal council dated 18th February 1900 make reference to a Karithkia street in Chrysaliniotissa Quarter. The street is described as the path Kaimakli residents took to enter the walled city.

  29. 29.

    Demolished in 1929.

  30. 30.

    Referred to as “Moslem School of Divinity” in the 1915 cadastral plans of Nicosia.

  31. 31.

    Djizya tax was imposed on non-Muslim populations of the Ottoman Empire [56].

  32. 32.

    From 1880–83, Kitchener was appointed by the British Government as Director of Revenue Survey in Cyprus [91].

  33. 33.

    In 1889 the town was still compactly situated within the fortifications and there were no suburbs outside the walls [55].

  34. 34.

    Sir Garnet Wolseley wrote in his journal on the 20th of October 1878 that Richard the Lionheart adopted Saint George as England’s patron saint after his battle near Cyprus.

  35. 35.

    The Konak (Saray) was the courthouse and residence of the late Turkish Governor that was used by the British upon their arrival.

  36. 36.

    For Branding see “Place, Naming and the Interpretation of Cultural Landscapes” [92].

  37. 37.

    [17] (see the Law on the Registration of Census and of Properties of the 14 Jemazi ul Evel 1277 Chap. II Art.6 and Chap. VII Art. I.).

  38. 38.

    Art. 95 of the Ottoman Codes [14].

  39. 39.

    Grivaud supports the fact that there is no proof in Venetian documentation from before 1570 that the gates were named [72].

  40. 40.

    During the Third Crusade, in 1191, Richard I of England (Lionheart) conquered Cyprus after defeating the self-declared Byzantine ruler of the island, Isaakios Komnenos. The island of Cyprus would remain under Latin rule until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1571 [94].

  41. 41.

    The British usually avoided referring to Cypriots according to their nationality (Greek- or Turkish-Cypriots), preferring the terms “Moslem” and “Non-Moslem”.

  42. 42.

    For the symbolic make-up of political identity see [94].

  43. 43.

    The different approach about the British ruling of Jerusalem and Nicosia resulted from the fact that the British ousted the Ottomans from Palestine whereas in the case of Cyprus the island was ceded. As a result, the British had exclusive control over space in Jerusalem unlike the situation in Cyprus.

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Theocharous, S. (2024). From Western to Islamic World: The Transformation of Nicosia’s Cultural Identity. In: Street Naming and the Politics of Greek-Cypriot Identity. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54415-6_4

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