Abstract
Fire spread is a very important issue during fires in tunnels. The elongated geometry of a tunnel with a relatively low ceiling height can cause the flames and hot gases to extend long distances along the ceiling, increasing the risk of fire spread. The use of ventilation in the tunnel as well as different types of vehicles, commodities and materials influences the fire spread. This chapter contains both a summary of traditional ignition and fire spread theory and experience especially related to situations in tunnels with risk for fire spread. Different aspects of spread and burning of liquids are presented and discussed.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Rew C, Deaves D Fire spread and flame length in ventilated tunnels – a model used in Channel tunnel assessments. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Tunnel Fires and Escape from Tunnels, Lyon, France, 5–7 May 1999. Independent Technical Conferences Ltd, pp 397–406
Babrauskas V (2003) Ignition handbook. Fire Science Publishers, Issaquah
Wickström U (To be published) Heat transfer in fire technology. Draft 26 March 2013 edn.,
Quintiere JG (1998) Principals of fire behavior. Delmar Publishers
Drysdale D (1994) An introduction to fire dynamics. John Wiley & Sons
Kanury AM (1972) Ignition of cellulosic materials: a review. Fire Research Abstracts and Reviews 14:24–52
Dillon SE (1998) Analysis of the ISO9705 rom/corner test: simulations, correlations and heat flux measurements. M.S. Thesis, Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland
Cleary TG, Quintiere JG (1991) Flammability characterization of foam plastics. NIST
Hopkins DJ, Quintiere JG (1996) Material fire properties and predictions for thermoplastics. Fire Saf J 26:241–268
Grexa O, Janssens M, White R, Dietenberger M (1998) Fundamental thermophysical prperties of materials derived from cone calorimeter measurements. In: Wood & Fire Safety: 3rd International Scientific Conference. The High Tatras, Slovak Republic, pp 139–147
Henderson A (1998) Predicting ignition time under transient heat flux using results from constant heat flux experiments. School of Engineering, Univ, Canterbury, Christchurch
Janssens ML (1991) Fundamental thermophysical characteristics of wood and their role in enclosure fire growth. Ph.D dissertation, University of Gent, Belgium
Harkleroad M. Unpublished NIST data
Grexa O, Horváthová E (1997) Osvald a cone calorimeter studies of wood species. In: International Symposium on Fire Science and Technology, Seoul. Korean Institute of Fire Science & Enginering, pp 77–84
Dietenberger M, Grexa O (1999) Analytical model of flame spread in full-scale room/corner tests (ISO 9705). In: Fire & Materials ‘99, 6th International Conference. Interscience Communications Ltd, pp 211–222
NFPA (1981) NFPA Handbook. National Fire Protection Association
Glassman I, Dryer F (1980/81) Flame spreading across liquid fuels. Fire Saf J 3:123–138
Gottuk DT, White DA (2008) Liquid Fuel Fires. In: DiNenno P (ed) The SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, pp 2-337–332-357
Ingason H Small Scale Test of a Road Tanker Fire (October 10-11 1994) In: Ivarson E (ed) International Conference on Fires in Tunnels. SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, Borås, pp 238–248
Ingason H, Li YZ (2017) Spilled Liquid Fires in Tunnels. Fire Saf J 91:399–406
White D et al (1997) Flame spread on aviation fuels. Fire Saf J 28:1–31
Xie W, Zhang Y, Li J, Mao P, Chen L (2018) Experimental study on characteristics of flame spread over diesel and nbutanol pool fires in tunnel. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 79:286–292
Lönnermark A, Kristensson P, Helltegen M, Bobert M (12–14 March 2008) Fire suppression and structure protection for cargo train tunnels: macadam and HotFoam. In: Lönnermark A, Ingason H (eds) 3rd International Symposium on Safety and Security in Tunnels (ISTSS 2008). SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Stockholm, pp 217–228
de Ris J (1970) Duct fires. Combust Sci Technol 2:239–258
Ingason H (2012) Fire dynamics in tunnels. In: Beard AN, Carvel RO (eds) The handbook of tunnel fire safety, 2nd edn. ICE Publishing, London, pp 273–304
Koseki H (1989) Combustion properties of large liquid pool fires. Fire Technol 25(August):241–255
Tewardson A (2008) Generation of heat and gaseous, liquid, and solid products in fires. In: DiNenno PJ, Drysdale D, Beyler CL et al (eds) The SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering, 4th edn. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, pp 3-109–103-194
Ingason H, Li YZ, Lönnermark A (2015) Runehamar tunnel fire tests. Fire Saf J 71:134–149
Ingason H, Lönnermark A, Li YZ (2011) Runehamar tunnel fire tests. SP Technicial Research Institute, SP Report 2011, p 55
Ingason H, Bergqvist A, Lönnermark A, Frantzich H, Hasselrot K (2005) Räddningsinsatser i vägtunnlar, P21-459/05 Räddningsverket
Lönnermark A, Ingason H (2006) Fire Spread and flame length in large-scale tunnel fires. Fire Technol 42(4):283–302
BEA-TT (2006) Rapport provisoire d’enquête technique sur l’incendie de poids lours survenu dans le tunnel du Fréjus le 4 juin 2005. Bureau d’Enquêtes sur les Accidents de Transport Terrestre, France
Brinson A (2005) Fire in French tunnel kills two. Eurosprinkler
Bettelini M, Neuenschwander H, Henke A, Gagliardi M, Steiner W The fire in the St Gotthard tunnel of October 24, 2001. In: Ingason H (ed) International symposium on catastrophic tunnel fires (CTF). SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, Borås., 20–21 November 2003, pp 49–68
Ingason H Fire Development in Catastrophic Tunnel Fires (CTF). In: Ingason H (ed) International Symposium on Catastrophic Tunnel Fires (CTF), Borås., 20–21 November 2003. SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute, pp. 31–47
Duffé P, Marec M (1999) Report on the technical enquiry into the fire on 24 March 1999 in the Mont Blanc tunnel. Ministry of the Interior, Ministry for Equipment, Transport and Accommodation, France
Wang T, Tang Y, Wang Z, An W, Chen X (2023) Flame spread over cables in a utility tunnel: effect of longitudinal wind and inclination angle. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 131
Byrne E, Georgieva K, Carvel R (2018) Fires in ducts: a review of the early research which underpins modern tunnel fire safety engineering. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 81:306–314
Torero JL (2008) Flaming ignition of solid fuels. In: DiNenno P (ed) The SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, pp 2–262
Beard AN, Drysdale DD, Bishop SR (1995) A non-linear model of major fire spread in a tunnel. Fire Saf J 24:333–357
Beard AN (1997) A model for predicting fire spread in tunnels. J Fire Sci 15(July/August):277–307
Beard AN Major fire spread in a tunnel: a non-linear model. In: Vardy AE (ed) Fourth International Conference on Safety in Road and Rail Tunnels, Madrid, Spain, 2–6 April 2001. University of Dundee and Independent Technical Conferences Ltd., pp 467–476
Beard AN Major fire spread in a tunnel: a non-linear model with flame impingement. In: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Safety in Road and Rail Tunnels, Marseille, France, 6–10 October 2003. University of Dundee and Independent Technical Conferences Ltd, pp 511–521
Beard AN (25–27 October 2004) Major fire spread in a tunnel, assuming flame impingement: effect of separation and ventilation velocity. In: Fifth International Conference on Tunnel Fires. Tunnel Management International, London, pp 317–326
Carvel RO, Beard AN, Jowitt PW The influence of longitudinal ventilation on fire spread between HGV fires in tunnels. In: Fifth International Conference on Tunnel Fires. Tunnel Management International, London., 25–27 October 2004, pp 307–316
Hansen R, Ingason H (2011) An engineering tool to calculate heat release rates of multiple objects in underground structures. Fire Saf J 46(4):194–203
Hansen R, Ingason H (2012) Heat release rates of multiple objects at varying distances. Fire Saf J 52:1–10
Ingason H (2009) Design fire curves in tunnels. Fire Saf J 44(2):259–265
Numajiri F, Furukawa K (1998) Short communication: mathematical expression of heat release rate curve and proposal of ‘Burning Index’. Fire Mater 22:39–42
Ingason H, Li YZ (2011) Model scale tunnel fire tests with point extraction ventilation. J Fire Prot Eng 21(1):5–36
Li YZ, Lei B, Ingason H (2011) The maximum temperature of buoyancy-driven smoke flow beneath the ceiling in tunnel fires. Fire Saf J 46(4):204–210
Li YZ, Ingason H (2015) Fire-induced ceiling jet characteristics in tunnels under different ventilation conditions. SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, SP Report 2015:23, Borås
He K, Li YZ, Ingason H, Cheng X (2023) Fire spread among multiple vehicles in tunnels using longitudinal ventilation. Tunn Undergr Space Technol 133:104967
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ingason, H., Li, Y.Z., Lönnermark, A. (2024). Fire Spread. In: Tunnel Fire Dynamics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53923-7_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53923-7_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-53922-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-53923-7
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)