Keywords

1 Introduction

European Wild Rabbit (WR), i.e. the Oryctolagus cuniculus, is a species of great importance in the ecosystems of Mediterranean region [1], where it is generally recognized as playing a significant role in biodiversity conservation and ecological stability of ecosystems [2]. WR is a resilient and adaptive species with high birth rate dynamics and vast variety of food choices on plants wild and cultivated, which makes it a significant prey for more than 20 predators [3, 4]. Worldwide, WR is sustainably managed in various diverse ways depending on the size of its population. It is a species under conservation if its population decreases such as in Iberian Peninsula of Spain [5], but when the WR is overpopulated it is treated mainly as a pest such as in Australia where the negative impact of WR to natural and agricultural ecosystems is significant [6, 7]. In some cases, the WR are used as a resource of local gastronomy with such a success story recorded in Ischia island of Italy where the Coniglio all’ Ischitana (Rabbit Stew) has become a famous dish due to the WR abundance [8, 9].

For more than two decades, in the island of Lemnos, North Aegean of Greece, a significant overpopulation of the WR is recorded, despite its sustainable presence from ancient times [10, 11]. The reason for this continuing increase in the population of WR is the decline of presence of its main predator, which in the case of Lemnos island is none other than humans [2, 12]. The large migration of the rural population from the island in the past decades resulted the abandonment of agricultural crops and disruption the local agri-food chain. The predator–prey relationship that had been established for centuries between the wild rabbits and humans has been disturbed, causing the former to move from the rocky hills to the fertile plains to feed on the remaining agricultural crops. This disruption of the ecological balance is causing significant economic loss in the agricultural sector of the island and social conflicts among local stakeholders. Various actions from the authorities to reduce the WR population has failed over the years, resulting the implementation of a yearly compensation for the farmers production loss by the WR, a policy that only manages the impact but not the problem itself.

This study aims to re-evaluate the WR issue on Lemnos by studying the social, economic and ecological dynamics of re-introducing the meat of WR as a commodity and especially as part of the local gastronomy of the island. Specifically, the impact of WR population will be assessed by the study of information collected from multiple sources in a mixed-methods approach using both quantitative and qualitative data.

2 Methodology

Our research was organized by (a) collecting multivariable data from agricultural and hunting associations to study the source and evaluate the impact of the WR overpopulation, and (b) conducting interviews with local restaurants owners and key local stakeholders to detect the potential dynamics of local gastronomy as a key-driver for reducing the WR population through the increase of its consumption.

Statistical raw data were acquired from the Hellenic Agricultural Insurance Organization (in Greek called ELGA) database for a period of over 10 years (2011–2021). This analytical information refer to the compensations paid to Lemnos farmers for the loss of their production and the damage caused in their crops by the WR overpopulation. Additionally, data were collected from the Hellenic Hunters Confederation (HHC), acquired from ARTEMIS project database [13] from the hunting period 2010–2022. These data refer to the average annual game hunting opportunity, average annual harvesting of game per hunter and per expedition and demand for game in Lemnos island. All raw data were acquired after personal communication with the organizations, and they were statistically analyzed to interpret the dynamics and the spatial distribution of the phenomenon.

Furthermore, semi-structured interviews were conducted with thirteen stakeholders of the local community, chosen by purposive sampling [14, 15]. The interviewees were local restaurants owners and key local stakeholders. The interviews revealed the main thematic areas about stakeholders’ perceptions about WR overpopulation problem providing a mixed methods approach alongside with the statistical analysis.

3 Failed Policies and Distorted Local Perceptions on WR

For the control of the WR overpopulation the local and regional authorities tried to implement various and diverse management practices, such as rabbit-proof fencing, introduced predators, fumigation, and mainly systematic hunting [6, 16]. Concerning the hunting process local forest authorities funded organized hunting groups for killing wild rabbits, additional to usual hunting game by individuals. Unfortunately, the results were only temporary and localized. Furthermore, the unsuccessful control of WR population by the authorities led to illegal practices by individuals, such as poisoning, despite that most of the island is under the protection of Natura 2000 network [17]. Such illegal solutions created more problems, because they had a deadly impact to various wildlife and domestic animals of the island, developing controversies among local stakeholders and authorities. While the problem remained it continued to create significant economic impact to farmers from the damaged agricultural production by the wild rabbits combined with ecosystem and land degradation to natural and agricultural areas of the island, leading to local protests and demanding compensations for their losses [18].

In 2011, the Hellenic Agricultural Insurance Organization (ELGA) decided to start compensating the farmers for the loss of their production due to WR overpopulation. This policy until nowadays became the main and for most of the following years the only measure against the population of the WR and its impact. Over the last decade the overall agricultural area affected by the WR is approximately 50,000 acres and the amount of compensations given to local farmers is over 5.4 million euros (Table 1). The agricultural loss is significant for the local economy with a yearly mean value of 493.8 thousand euros in an area of 4,451.6 acres (mean value). The ELGA compensation even though manages to cover most of the production decline, most significantly this damage discourages the farmers to be productive and to invest in the development of their agricultural production. This continuing impact is the result of a consistent overpopulation of WR, with only a small reduction of its impact in 2018.

Table 1 Compensations for the agricultural production loss (damage) from WR overpopulation for the period 2011–2021, in Lemnos island (analyzed data from ELGA database)
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The only existing process to reduce the WR population was and still is hunting game with its yearly seasons. Data collected from the Hellenic Hunters Confederation (HHC), according to ARTEMIS project data [13], showed decline of interest especially from local hunters (Fig. 1). From 2010 to 2022 most of the hunters came from the Region of Voreio Aigaio itself (6699 hunting expeditions in total). However, there where hunters from other regions such as Anatoliki Makedonia, Thraki, Attiki Dytiki Makedonia, Ionia Nissia, Ipeiros, Kentriki Makedonia, Peloponnisos, and Sterea Ellada. The largest number of expeditions occurred in 2011–2012 and 2012–2013 (828 expeditions), while in the period 2020–2021 only 278 expeditions took place.

Fig. 1
A stacked bar graph of the number of recorded hunting expeditions in the Lemnos island versus years. Bars represent different regions. The peak value is approximately 830 from 2011 and 2012 and 2012 and 2013.

Distribution of recorded hunting expeditions in the Lemnos island with the origin of the hunters by region and hunting season (analyzed data from HHC database)

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The high cost of hunting regarding the expenses needed (licenses, leases, weapons and ammunition, equipment and trips) [19], discouraged the Greek hunters to move further than their region the years of economic crisis [19, 20]. Moreover, COVID-19 lockdown limited hunting activity even more due to the restrictions that were imposed. Additionally, even though Section IV of Annex III to Regulation (EC) 853/2004 [21] could be applied for the meat of wild game to the countries of European Union, there is a lack of game-handling establishments and officially trained persons in Greece. For the sale of small quantities of small wild game, such as lagomorphs, national legislative measures should be adopted.

4 Local Gastronomy Dynamics and Potentials

From ancient times, Lemnos was a destination for travelers where they could find shelter and food when they traveled at the North Aegean Sea. Due to the geostrategic position of the island in the region, agricultural sector and its trade was one of the main professional occupations of the local population. During these centuries, the fertile agricultural land of the island continues to provide a variety of Mediterranean products (cereals, legumes, fruits, dairy products and livestock) a tradition that still exists in nowadays.

The WR became part of the local dishes where it was used as the main ingredient for the common Greek traditional recipe of ‘Wild Rabbit with Onions’, called ‘Stifado’ in Greek (Fig. 2). In this recipe, the wild rabbit meat after carefully cleaned of hunting debris, it is cooked with onions, tomato sauce and variety of herbs and spices. It is considered a fine delicacy for many, but not attractive to younger generations because either it includes lots of onions or it contrasts with a general sympathy towards rabbits.

Fig. 2
A photograph of the dish, Stifado. A plate served with wild rabbit traditionally cooked with tomato sauce and onions on the side.

Wild rabbit with onions, traditionally cooked with tomato sauce and onions on the side, called ‘Stifado’ (Source: Traditional ‘Taverna Mantella’ in Sardes, Lemnos)

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In recent years, the local economy of Lemnos is investing on the touristic development of the island, setting the local gastronomy as one of its priorities. Local products of high nutritional value are the key ingredients of local restaurants, used in traditional and modern recipes, combined with high quality services.

Despite the significant culinary development in the island following and influencing positively its touristic development, the wild rabbit with its highly nutritional meat hasn’t yet found its place in the 20–40 restaurants of the island. Our research showed that only two restaurants have included traditional recipes of WR in their menu, combined with other traditional dishes, and five of them offer WR after special order. The significant variation of the number of restaurants is because most of them open only during the summer season from mid-June to late August. The owners of the restaurants explained the reason for their reluctance to include the WR meat and recipes to their menu is due to: (a) the extra effort that WR meat requires to be prepared for cooking including various food safety is-sues with unclear legislative framework, (b) the diverse profile of their restaurants which many of them focus on seafood and offer more modern dishes, and (c) their belief of the low interest from the consumers for ordering a recipe with WR. Interesting finding was the opinion from most of the chefs that WR meat could be re-introduced with more modern ways and recipes, but they were reluctant to invest effort and time to implement these potential gourmet ideas to their menus. Concerning the local population, our findings had showed a small consumption of WR meat because of the decline of interest from local consumers following the over-availability of the product.

5 Discussion and Conclusions

Our research revealed hidden aspects of the WR overpopulation problem which includes (a) significant increasing numbers of WR in most areas of the island, (b) declining interest in hunting them by hunters local and visitors, (c) critical institutional restrictions on processing and selling their meat to local market and restaurants, and (d) reluctance to introduce the WR meat to restaurant menus by their owners. These findings describe the diverse components of the Lemnos WR systemic problem between a long-term disruption of the island's food chain and today’s inability of the local market to overcome constraints and innovate in capitalizing new opportunities.

At the same time, we recorded a significant increase in the tourist product on Lemnos, which mainly includes relaxing holidays enjoying the natural landscapes and its high quality local gastronomy. Concerning the use of WR meat, only two restaurants offer traditional recipes of WR, combined with other traditional dishes. Further analysis of the interviews with the restaurant owners and the local hunters showed that the former wouldn’t invest effort and money to include the wild rabbit meat to their kitchen and disrupt the demanding schedule of their chef, while the latter lost their interest on hunting the WR because they find it easy and even boring. Even the hunting tourism of the island had a continuing decline due to long-term economic crises and health restrictions such as COVID-19.

In contrast to negative existing situation, future positive dynamics were detected through our interviews. Most of the stakeholders could understand the potential of utilizing the WR meat in various modern ways, with and beyond its traditional use as rabbit stew (stifado), even though they were reluctant to act until now. Implementing sustainability is a complex task demanding participatory processes and integrated understanding of the system involved. The WR issue in Lemnos has all the potential to be solved through local gastronomy, but implementation will take a little bit longer.