Keywords

1 Background of Research

The sea in the ancient world, but also nowadays, offers the possibility of communication, interaction and transaction between different cultures, continents and systems [1]. The importance of this phenomenon has been identified but not studied enough, even though its effects, positive and negative respectively, affect not only the Mediterranean Sea but also the global reality. The port of Piraeus, is one of the most ancient ports in the world that is still in use today [2]. Its active use began in the time of ancient Greece and it flourished to an outstanding degree up until the end of the Hellenistic period. The content of this research is conducted according to a wide spectrum of management analysis in order to investigate the influences of the port of Piraeus in all aspects of the local community of Piraeus and the city of Athens but also in the broader geographic area in which the specific port operates from the classical period.

2 Methodology of the Research

For the purpose of this research, a systematic review of bibliographic sources and published articles was chosen, with the criteria of choice the validity, relevance and timeliness in the history, management and cultural significance of the port of Piraeus.

2.1 Search Strategy and Databases

This systematic literature review was conducted in April 2023 in electronic databases as well as in Scopus Google Scholar seeking peer-reviewed articles related to the topics. After a detailed study of the literature and the simultaneous search for additional information, some questions were raised for research: Was the port of Piraeus a significant economic and cultural factor that influenced the community of Athens and its democracy in ancient Greece? Was the port of Piraeus contributed to the phenomena of Mediterraneanization and globalization? What are the differences between antiquity and modern times in the port of Piraeus in management wise?

2.2 Eligibility Criteria

For the purpose of this research, a systematic review of bibliographic sources and published articles was chosen, with the criteria of choice the validity, relevance and timeliness in the history, management and cultural significance of the port of Piraeus (4 peer-reviewed articles, 4 books, 6 web sites in English and 5 books in Greek). Therefore, doctoral dissertations or any other document types were not included. In Google Scholar search, patents and citations were excluded.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 The Port of Piraeus as a Significant Economic and Cultural Factor in Ancient Greece

In ancient times, the central idea for the design of Piraeus was made by Themistocles in the fifth century BC, in order to create a coastal city with a port, which would directly connect Athens with the Aegean islands. The port facility consisted of three ports (Cantharos, Zeas and Mounichia), all of which housed military equipment, with the exception of the main port of Cantharos, which, in addition to military facilities, also housed five wharves, which belonged to the “Emporion” for commercial transactions, (storage of products such as wheat flour etc.) [3]. After the completion of the walls in 471 century BC, the port of Piraeus is fortified with Athens and becomes not only an important military port, but also an excellent commercial center. Already from that time it was a pole of attraction for ancient sailors, who were willing to pay high fares in order for the end of their journey to be the port of Piraeus. Themistocles for the development of this port used revenues from the mines of Lavrio. By turning Athens into a naval power, Themistocles laid the foundations for the creation of a powerful new class, the “naval mob” i.e. oarsmen (about 20,000), which acted as a guarantee for the preservation of both the first democratic reforms and as a driving force for the completion of democracy [4]. Later, Pericles gave an even greater breath of development to the port and the wider area of Piraeus, turning the port into one of the most important hubs of development in the ancient world. At the same time that Hippodamus designed the city of Piraeus, in addition to the commercial market of the port, he designed a commercial market within the city near the port, the Hippodamian market, in such a way that his urban planning became a model for other cities of that time. Within the Agora was the “Agoranomion”, which controlled the weighing of food, adulterated food and determined the prices of the products. In addition, citizens gathered in the Agora to protest or express their opinions, while the southern part of the market near the military naval station Zeas served as a gathering place for the crews during recruitment. In the center of the port is “Deigma”, the geographical and operational center of the Trade. It was an exhibition area for samples of the imported goods on which the transactions were made, where all the banks were located, a kind of commodity exchange and banking center, as we would say today. Even in Deigma, copies of the municipal resolutions were usually placed on a pedestal, which probably bore the column of Poseidon, around which were established the offices of the bankers and the tester of the authenticity of the coins circulating in Commerce. It should be noted that the stock exchange price of the goods was formed in terms of trade and on the basis of this the amount of the freight rates and in general all shipping transactions were formed. Piraeus became the “clearing house” of the Mediterranean, the mandatory meeting place for the merchants of the world, the first banking center and commodity and freight exchange and, at the same time, a rapidly developing center of craft activity [5]. Together with the silver ore of Lavrio, constituted the richest source of revenue for the state treasury, as well as the material condition of an unprecedented flourishing of arts and letters. As a result of the economic, there was the rapid demographic development of Piraeus, to which the settlement of an increasingly large number of non-residents, Greeks and foreigners, contributed to a large extent. From the surviving tomb inscriptions, the origin of foreigners (outside Greece) is almost exclusively from the eastern Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Cyprus and Egypt. After Hellenistic era, Piraeus faced significant periods of crisis. In 86 BC the roman senator Silas destroyed Piraeus and Athens interrupting the operation of the port of Piraeus until the nineteenth century.

3.2 The Port of Piraeus and Mediterraneanization/Globalization

The position of the port of Piraeus is favorable for the service of goods, not only for our country but also for the wider region of the Balkans, the Black Sea and the states of the North East Mediterranean [6]. Its geographical position, at the junction of three Continents and important sea routes connecting the Mediterranean with Northern Europe, as well as its proximity to the Suez Canal, make it quite attractive as a transit port for large ships of the line as they can approach it without significant deviation from the route followed by the trade of central and eastern Asia with Europe. Extensive cross-border interaction between cultures in ancient times took place only through the sea. The Classical period is regarded as the golden time when Piraeus ruled the Mediterranean Sea, hosting trade inquires like no other port in the region. The entire city of Piraeus was equipped to serve the port’s activities both on shore and on the docks. Supplies from all over the Mediterranean peninsula were transported through the Piraeus, sold in it’ s markets and stored on it’ s warehouses [3]. All activities were conducted according to legal regulations and inspections that protected interests on all sides. This vast trading activity, combined with the military achievements that Athens secured thanks to the mindful use of the Piraeus geostrategic position, made the Hellenic influence spread outside it’ s borders on a linguistic, cultural, political and many other sectors. Beyond the movements and temporary stays of individual cases in foreign regions, the establishment of colonies is a phenomenon that intensifies attention and impresses for the first time in Greece of the fifth century BC [7]. In the fifth century, the favor of the Greeks in the Mediterranean prevailed, ensuring untold wealth to the elites of Selinunda and Akraganta. However, this was not the case for the years that followed. In short, during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman eras the Piraeus was pretty much overlooked, especially in comparison to the Classical times.

Everything was bound to change in the nineteenth century, when in the newly liberated Hellenic state, began to reconstruct and reform the port of Piraeus. Up until the twenty-first century the port had complied with the international standards of a legitimate operational port. Only in the 80s, in the light of the world developments at the time, scientists began to record and study the phenomenon that was later called Mediterraneanization [7]. The environment and the unstable availability of resources for the production of a product determined its price and the conditions of its storage and redistribution. Whether it is food or utilitarian material goods, the interdependence of the Mediterranean was a given throughout its history, through a system of communication, trade and exchange that operated between different political, economic and social conditions. Mediterranean opportunism, i.e. the responsibility of keeping everything under control so that the shortages that may arise from possible accidents and damages can be covered to deal with uncertainty was the main philosophy around the distribution and redistribution of products in Mediterranean, as well as for food production. This, of course, was true for both sea and land transport, as the topography played a key role for each Mediterranean region separately. This coherent model unites the entire Mediterranean region from prehistoric times up to the twentieth century.

This discovery of fluidity and interconnectedness in the late 1980s was preceded by the recent phenomenon of the last twenty years, globalization. The researchers saw in the ancient Mediterranean the same connection that shakes our world today. Globalization according to Campbell and Milanovic, is described as the increase of cross-border interdependence and total integration, as a result of the increased mobility of factors such as the production and management of goods and services [7]. The liberalization of trade through the abolition of national borders for rapid transportation with the help of advanced technology, advertising and secularization create global cultures and patterns of consumption, resulting in larger international markets and increased competition. Economic integration through capital markets and the virtual abolition of currency controls is expected to lead to economic growth, while key developments in transport and communication technologies have increased the speed of transport efficiency and lowered communication costs.

Globalization, like Mediterraneanization, has winners and losers. Under these conditions of expansion, the ports were called to reforms and reforms (port reform) in order to adapt to the new reality. The reformation of a port manifests itself in a variety of ways, from a simple reorganization to full privatization. Most countries that make this choice attempt to establish public–private partnerships, as this is considered the most attractive solution for both parties. In this way, the public can reduce administrative and financial burdens, improve efficiency and promote competition. The port of Piraeus is now a typical example of this fact, having been privatized by a Chinese company (COSCO Shipping) for which it is its biggest investment in the European area since 2009. The management of a port, with the geographical location of Piraeus, establishes power and provides possibilities for strategic intervention, which would otherwise be unthinkable. At the same time, the port, in addition to being a commercial and economic hub, is also a cultural one [8]. The port of Piraeus became the 1st major European Port after Swez Canal in terms of revenues (33% increase in 2021) mainly driven by the increase of tariffs, contracts and local cargo [9]. Finally, the city of Piraeus is becoming a haven of galleries and design studios attracted by its abundant warehouses and growing creative community [10].

3.3 Management in the Port of Piraeus in Antiquity and in Present

The management of the naval station and the maintenance of the condition of the ships and their equipment were in the fifth century BC special annual supervisors, called “neoroi”, who were assisted by a committee of ten curators [1]. In the 4th BC the same annual committee, with a secretary and a treasurer, maintained these duties, while the construction and repairs of the ships were supervised by the committee of ten trireme makers. As the place where the relevant inscriptions were found shows, the curators were established near the new residences of Cantharos, at the southern limit of the commercial port, where today the customs office for passengers is located. There next to it, in the seat of the curators, was probably the seat of the general, who was in charge of the “neoroi”, from the middle of the fourth century. At this point, the ships and their vessels were handed over to the trierarchs. Each time the ships were handed over to the commissioners’ committee the following year, they were accompanied by a report (a diagram) of the exact content of the naval station. The reading of these detailed diagrams is particularly interesting for the meticulous spirit and transparency of the democratic bureaucracy that characterizes them, but also for the most accurate picture of the state of the fleet during the period from the renaissance to the end of the naval power of Athens that they give. The content is classified into three main sections, receiving and processing, financial data and delivery.

Organization of internal control was carried out through administrative bodies, which carried the respective title either individually or collectively. Like the naval station, the “Emporion” was a very well-organized, separate sector of the city. The management of so vast and so active a place, with upwards of ten ships unloading and loading every day, while others stood waiting outside for all this world of sailors and merchants, who tuned in to the market and workshops of the port, or traded daily in “Deigma” and around the banks, it requires, in addition to building facilities, specialized technical facilities, cranes and a staff of specialist operators, loaders, boatmen and other activities. All this requires effective organization and policing. The policing of the port, depending on their responsibilities, was carried out by the authorities of the market, policemen and granary guards. From the middle of the fourth century, the main role is played by the ten curators of commerce. Over the years and the gradual entry into the Hellenistic era, Piraeus was faced with periods of crisis, which significantly affected the operation of the port.

The port of Piraeus, today, as then, is a vital hub of transport, trade, supplies and communications. The evolution of investment in the port allows it to host a wide range of activities, including ferry/passenger transport (it is the largest passenger port in Europe), handling almost all types of cargo, ships and cruise passengers as well as repairs ships. The Piraeus Port Organization S.A. is the legal entity that has been granted the management and use of the land area of the Port of Piraeus since 1930. The Hellenic Naval Academy has been functioning in the port since 1845. The military port was transferred to the island of Salamina while the main port remained commercial (Cantharos) and touristic marinas (Zeas, Munichia). The port of Piraeus has been privatized by a Chinese company (COSCO Shipping) since 2009 and has gain the 8th shipping center position in the 2021 Xinhua Baltic World Ranking. The aim is to become Europe’s largest port [9, 11].

3.4 Development of Infrastructures for Coasting and Cruises

In ancient times there were no purely passenger ships. Those passengers who traveled by ship boarded, for hire, mainly commercial ships, which ran established routes to specific destinations. However, trips were more frequent in the summer months (May–October), because in winter, visibility was more difficult due to the lack of light. At that time there was coastal shipping with mixed cargo ships. There may not have been cruise ships in ancient Greece, but the necessity of staying at the port existed just as it does today. For this purpose, there were suitable spaces for all travelers as well as for the merchants of the port (kapilia) which, in addition to staying, were suitable also for philosophical discussions.

Today, the cruise is a main pillar of a port’s operation since large cruise ships of 4–5 thousand people use port areas for embarking and disembarking customers for a certain period during which they require many port services. Ports and cities seek the approach of such ships because of the positive economic effect [12]. The cruise port is located on the Saronic Gulf (part of Aegan Sea) and was initially used as a terminus for passenger ferries connecting to the largest Greek islands [13]. In 2013, a new passenger station named Themistocles was opened in an old stone building. In 2019, a new cruise terminal project begun related to Pier 3 (port’s southern zone), committed to modernization investments worth EUR 800 million. At the new cruise terminal, Piraeus will be able to handle even the world’s largest passenger liners as both berths can dock vessels with length 400 m (1312 ft). After completion, Port Piraeus will become one of Mediterranean’s largest by capacity homeports, attracting an additional 580,000 cruise ship tourists (near 1.7 million) annually [13]. The station has modern control systems, large enough spaces for the entry and exit of passengers, and sufficient surrounding space for parking tourist buses and private cars. There is still an inability to plan passenger movements on the existing transfer itineraries for the approach to the port. Today, the problem is addressed with hotels near the port. The port of Piraeus decided to create four hotel units near the port with programs of stay and travel to the archaeological sites of Piraeus and Athens in order to satisfy the passengers and prepare them for their cruise. Passengers will remain in the same areas after the end of the cruise until the final departure (homeport).

In ancient times, the concept of yachts did not exist. In today’s port of Piraeus there are two areas for small yachts, Zeas and Microlimano (former Munichia). In ancient times also, there were no high safety requirements for passenger transport. Nowadays, port security is a crucial industry with experience and use of new technological means [14].

4 Conclusion

Back in ancient Athens where democracy was first created, the democratic constitution as well as the later superiority of the city was established largely due to the array of services and activities that were conducted through the port of Piraeus. Managing a port means managing both internal and external affairs of a city/state at the same time. It is exactly the place where order is either bestowed or lost. For that reason, there need to be substantial infrastructures for each and every activity and service both at sea and on shore. For many cases the port is of vital importance to the place it accommodates. Military power at sea, commerce and taxation are few of the primal factors that support this. Back in ancient Athens, at the time when Piraeus became the clearing house of the Mediterranean the demands became so high that there wasn’t room for any sloppiness. Effective coordination of activities and division of task amongst qualified personnel was essential for the port city. From the study it can be seen that in the port of Piraeus, ideas such as democratic bureaucracy, product sampling and quality, auctioning, banking transactions, logistics, tourist accommodation for a fee, ship shelters and repair activities etc. were developed and implemented. Therefore, it would be educationally necessary to use the port of Piraeus as an example of data analysis 2500 years ago, but also as a source of inspiration and understanding of the participation of Greeks in the modern sciences of shipping, trade, logistics and culture.